history6

M.N. Dhalla: History of Zoroastrianism (1938), part 6.

[384] CHAPTER XLIII EVIL
Independent origin of evil. The sharp antithesis of the Avestan period between good and evil is still further intensified by the Pahlavi writers. In fact dualism reaches its consummation in this period. It is the standard philosophy, and is upheld as the only possible solution of the problem of evil. The author of the Shikand Gumanik Vijar, who is himself a dualist of the most pronounced kind, strongly urges in his polemics against other religions that good and evil can on no account have originated from one and the same source. Evil is considered to have as independent and complete an existence as good; they are both primeval. They are so entirely separate from each other that neither good originates from evil, nor evil from good.¹ Each one of them exists by itself, and entertains perpetual antagonism towards the other.² The pairs of opposites such as heat and cold, perfume and stench, pleasure and pain, health and sickness, life and death, and all others fall under the compass of these fundamental terms, good and evil.³ This dualism between good and evil in the moral realm is the same as that between light and darkness in the physical world. Right is identified with light, and wrong with darkness. There has never been anything in the World which is not either good or evil or a mixture of both.⁴ Besides, in all periods, evil is found to be stronger than goodness.⁵ The nature of divinity is light and beauty, fragrance and purity, goodness and wisdom; for darkness and ugliness, stench and pollution, evil and ignorance are outside of his nature.⁶ Ohrmazd is not responsible for this imperfect side of existence.	1 Sg. 8. 89, 102. 2 Ib., 90, 91. 3 Ib., 92-99, 101. 4 Ib., 100; 11.158. 5 Ib., 11. 97. 6 Ib., 319, 320.
Tracing both good and evil to God deprives him of his divinity. It seems that the dualistic system is criticized by the non-Zoroastrian critics as detracting from the grandeur of the [385] godhead;⁷ but the author of this treatise retorts by arguing at length that the indispensable attributes of God such as his goodness, omniscience, omnipotence, and the rest, demand that he could not simultaneously be the producer of good and of evil. If evil is also his creation, God is either not wholly good or he is not wholly powerful; both good and evil cannot be dependent on his will. The controversialist continues by addressing arguments to prove that Ohrmazd cannot be held accountable for evil without impairing some one or more of his attributes that are essential to his divinity; and whatever reflects upon even a single of his divine attributes degrades his position. We shall now see the main arguments advanced by the learned controversialist against the theory of tracing both good and evil to one and the Same source.	7 Sg. 12.33, 34.
The goodness of Ohrmazd demands that he could on no account be the author of evil. One of the essential requisites of the godhead is goodness. If evil arises from him as the deity, he is imperfect in goodness, and consequently could not be deserving of praise and sacrifice from men.⁸ Men cannot pray to one who is partly good and partly evil. If the divine being could have averted evil from mankind, and did not so will it, he is not perfect in goodness; and a being that is imperfect in goodness is not to be glorified by men.⁹ If he is perfect in goodness, he could not wish for the presence of evil, but only for its extinction;¹⁰ for a being whose will is evil is unworthy of his divinity.¹¹ Such a view destroys his attribute of goodness. But Ohrmazd is perfect in goodness;¹² and consequently, his will being eternally good, only goodness should prevail in the world from its beginning up to its end.¹³ But, the author maintains, the world shows more of evil than goodness,¹⁴ hence evil is outside of and independent of Ohrmazd. Beside all that, everything in the world either happens through his will, or it does not, or there may be some things that happen through his will, and others through the Will of some other.¹⁵ If both the good and evil come to pass through his will, then his will is not perfect,¹⁶ and the being whose will is imperfect is himself [386] imperfect.¹⁷ If nothing proceeds through his will, he works automatically and is therefore made by some one,¹⁸ but this is unthinkable. If some things are through his will and others through the will of some other being, God either ordains the existence of the good or the evil, for there is nothing in the world which is not the result of either of the two. If God wills good, some one else wills evil, or if he wills evil, some other being wills good.¹⁹ Hence a power that personifies the opposing will exists,²⁰ and since God is goodnees, the evil in the world proceeds through the will of the rival spirit, who exists independent of the good spirit.	8 Ib., 11.103-111. 9 Ib., 280-284, 315. 10 Ib., 11.311. 11 Ib., 35. 12 Zsp. 1.17. 13 Sg. 11.339-342. 14 Ib., 36, 343. 15 Ib., 155-157. 16 Ib., 125-132, 159-162, 344-351. 17 Ib., 162. 18 Sg. 164-167. 19 Ib., 168-175. 20 Ib., 176.
If it is argued that Ohrmazd has created evil for the reason that mankind may better understand and appreciate goodness; or again, that he has created poverty, pain, and death that human beings may better understand the value of wealth, health, and life, and consequently become more grateful to God, it is as unreasonable as saying that the Deity gives poison to mankind so that they may better understand and appreciate the value of the antidote.²¹ In another place, however, it is said in the Pahlavi texts that Ohrmazd allows Ahriman, the father of evil, to commingle with his creation for an allotted period for the experience and training of mankind.²²	21 Ib., 11. 197-204. 22 Dk., vol. 10, bk. 5.7, p. 8.
The all-wise God would not create his own adversary. Omniscience is one of the attributes requisite for divinity;²³ and in the Pahlavi period Ohrmazd is always spoken of as omniscient.²⁴ If it is maintained that both good and evil proceed from Ohrmazd himself, the question then arises why he being omniscient, should have foreseen the harm that would be caused to his creation, and yet not have found it inexpedient to create, through his own will, a perverse creature that would turn out to be his adversary and cause him perpetual anxiety and sorrow.²⁵ If he did not foresee the evil consequences, he is not omniscient.²⁶ If he created this eternal foe to man for the sake of experiment, without knowing the result, then such a being is making experiments at the painful cost of the miseries of the countless generations of mankind, and is consequently not omniscient.²⁷	23 Sg. 11.13. 24 Ib., 12.52. 25 Ib., 11.93, 94. 26 Ib., 9. 27 Ib., 115-117.
[387] Again it is meaningless for the wise one who is contented with his own divinity and grandeur to have produced through his own knowledge and will an enemy of mankind, who causes them misery in this and the next world.²⁸ A wise person always acts with a view to the good of all, and does not contemplate evil. Now evil abounds in the world. If the Lord has created Ahriman, who does good neither to him nor to his creatures, but positive harm to all, then this creative act of Ohrmazd is unwise.²⁹ Again if God does not know the means to avert evil, he is equally unwise,³⁰ and an unwise God is imperfect.³¹ But Ohrmazd is perfect in wisdom, and knows how to eradicate evil,³² which he has not created.	28 Sg. 11.27-29. 29 Ib., 11.330-338. 30 Ib., 314. 31 Ib., 317. 32 Ib., 310.
Omnipotent Ohrmazd has not created evil. One of the indispensable attributes of God is omnipotence;³³ and the divinity of the Deity without this quality would be incomplete.³⁴ The independent existence of a rival spirit, which the theologians of this period so zealously maintain, is in no way considered to diminish the power and grandeur of God.³⁵ Inasmuch as the ultimate victory rests with the Good Spirit, and goodness is to rout evil at the end of time, the omnipotence of Ohrmazd is not considered to be impaired. It is emphasized in Pahlavi literature that Ohrmazd, who is omnipotent,³⁶ would on no account be the author of evil.³⁷ If he desired to prevent evil, but could not do so, he is impotent. The omnipotent being must be capable of performing his own will, for otherwise mankind would not adore him as the almighty Lord.³⁸ If he is thus capable of performing his will, and if at the same time his will is always for good and never for evil, it should come to pass that the avoidance of sin, the shunning of the path to hell, and the striving to be worthy of heaven would be manifest among all mankind according to God's will.³⁹ But this is not the case.⁴⁰ If the Deity is capable of performing his will, and yet does not do it, he is unmerciful and of inconstant will.⁴¹	33 Ib., 11.13. 34 Ib., 15, 16. 35 Ib., 33,34. 36 Ib., 12. 52. 37 Ib., 11.312. 38 Ib., 288-294. 39 Ib., 295-297. 40 Ib., 298. 41 Ib., 299, 300.
Again, if the rival spirit did not exist, and if evil did not originate from him, the omnipotent creator ought to have created [388] his creatures without blemish.⁴² His mercifulness and omniscience would have demanded this from him.⁴³	42 Ib., 118. 43 Ib., 119-124.
If it is said that the adversary was created originally good by Ohrmazd, from whom he afterwards revolted and became evil, then it shows that the adversary possesses a more powerful will than that of the sacred being, since in that event the power of evil is thus able to break his commandment and diffuse more harm in the world than the good of the sacred being.⁴⁴ Furthermore, Ohrmazd, as the almighty being, should not have created an opponent who in the long run, by deluding and misleading mankind, threatened to become triumphant over him.⁴⁵ In addition, as the omniscient being, the Deity should have foreseen the consequences and not have produced a rebel for whose existence he would have to be sorry.⁴⁶ Moreover, the Evil Spirit should not, under these circumstances, be unreasonably blamed, since he has been created of so headstrong a will by God;⁴⁷ on the contrary, the Good Spirit who has created him of such perverse nature should be held accountable for the mischief that the Evil One is now doing in the world.⁴⁸	44 Ib., 51,95-97. 45 Ib., 85-87. 46 Ib., 88-94. 47 Ib., 245-251. 48 Ib., 257, 258.
If it is maintained that Ohrmazd has created disease and misfortune to give an opportunity to mankind-an opportunity to practise the virtue of mitigating these evils, and thus to be finally rewarded by eternal happiness-it means that he is not actually able to bestow happiness upon the virtuous, except by causing distress to others.⁴⁹ Again, to say that he will give recompense to the sick and needy, who have undeservedly suffered in this world, would reflect upon the Good Spirit;⁵⁰ for it shows that it was impossible for him to give these unfortunate people happiness in heaven, without first causing them misery in this world.⁵¹ This after-nobility of rewarding after harassing does no credit to the Almighty One.⁵² But, the argument continues, Ohrmazd has neither created Ahriman nor his evil.	49 Ib., 141-148. 50 Ib., 149. 51 Ib., 150. 52 Ib., 151-154.
From the trend of his argument we might be led to think that our author thus prefers to limit the omnipotence of Ohrmazd rather than ascribe to him the authorship of evil. But his contention is that inasmuch as Ahriman, who is independent in his origin, will ultimately bow the knee before Ohrmazd and [389] perish at his hands, the omnipotence of the Good Spirit may be considered to be intact.
Ohrmazd, the sovereign ruler, would not harass his earthly subjects by the creation of evil. If the divine being who is the eternal sovereign⁵³ keeps out distress, oppression, injustice from the world, and routs the enemies that threaten the peace and security of mankind, he is worthy of his divinity,⁵⁴ but if he rules as a tyrant occasioning eternal distress to mankind, he is unworthy of his divinity.⁵⁵ His title to divinity further demands that he cannot be a good and a bad sovereign, causing happiness as well as misery unto mankind, for that would make him of a mixed individuality.⁵⁶	53 Sg. 12. 52. 54 Ib., 11.17-19, 222, 227-232. 55 Ib., 233-238. 56 Ib., 225, 226, 239-244.
Again, he could not produce evil to injure his own creatures, unless he ceases to be their friend and turns out their enemy.⁵⁷ But the creator is the friend of creation and not its enemy. He is its best ruler. Evil is introduced into his earthly kingdom by an infernal sovereign who struggles to found the Kingdom of Wickedness on earth.	57 Ib., 217-221, 252.
Unmerited harm could not emanate from a just God. Ohrmazd is just, and administers justice with exactitude unto all. Now, if he is the author of evil, crime, and sin, there is no justice in his thus creating these and then enjoining that mankind shall abstain from committing them, under penalty of incurring punishment.⁵⁸ Ohrmazd, the writer continues, is the emblem of truth and justice even as Ahriman is the embodiment of falsehood and injustice. It is, therefore, inconsistent for a true and just being to say, on the one hand, that he hates sin and sinners, and on the other hand to produce more sin and sinners than good deeds and doers of good deeds.⁵⁹ It is not justice, moreover, to inflict unlimited punishment for a limited sin, and to cause perpetual pain and distress to his creatures for indulging in the evil which he has himself produced.⁶⁰ But Ohrmazd is the embodiment of justice, whereas the existence of evil is a glaring injustice to innocent humanity. Hence evil, the writer concludes, is the creation of an unjust power, that is, of Ahriman.	58 Sg. 11.109, 110, 125-132, 260-263. 59 Ib., 11.30-33. 60 Ib., 12.41-50.
God, the embodiment of mercy, could not inflict evil upon his own creatures. One of the essential traits of Ohrmazd is [390] his mercifulness.⁶¹ If, then, he is merciful, why should he knowingly permit Ahriman to introduce misery and harm among his own creatures.⁶² Mankind, even with their little knowledge, would never, of their own accord, allow the lion, the wolf, and other noxious creatures in among their young ones; why has the Lord, who is called merciful, let in Ahriman and his ribald crew of demons upon his own creation.⁶³ If he is capable of removing evil and yet does not do so, but, on the contrary, curses those who adhere to evil and casts them away for punishment in hell, he is not merciful.⁶⁴ Where is his divine mercy in fathering such a world of woe and sorrow.	61 Ib., 11.13. 62 Sg. 11.8. 63 Ib., 11.111-114. 64 Ib., 121-124, 300.
Again, as a wise being Ohrmazd acts for some purpose when he creates the universe, for to act without a purpose is not worthy of the all-wise lord.⁶⁵ If he has, then, created the world for his own pleasure and for the happiness of mankind, as religion claims, why should he ever indulge in their slaughter and devastation.⁶⁶ But this is not true, for Ohrmazd is merciful and he does not slaughter, nor devastate, nor wish evil to his creatures; evil is, therefore, not of his making, but of some other merciless being.⁶⁷ Such is the view maintained in the treatise.	65 Ib., 103-105. 66 Ib., 106-108. 67 Ib., 12.56.
It is deemed futile to attempt to resolve Ahriman into a symbolic personification of man's evil nature. To those who put forth the theory that evil springs from the nature of mans our author asks whether it had its origin before the creation of mankind or at the same time with man.⁶⁸ If evil arose before man, he says, it must either have been created by God, or it had its independent existence.⁶⁹ If it arose after mankind through man's own making, that is, through the freedom of his own will, it means that man originated it in defiance of the imperfect will of his own creator.⁷⁰ This is setting up the will of man in opposition to the will of Ohrmazd. Now the sinners, among mankind are punished by Ohrmazd. His omnipotence and mercifulness demand that he should not have thus allowed men to sin, when he wanted to punish them afterwards for having committed sin.⁷¹ If evil originates with mankind, because mankind are created by God, then the creator is responsible, for the production of evil.⁷²	68 Ib., 11.177-179. 69 Ib., 180-182. 70 Ib., 183-191. 71 Ib., 192-196. 72 Ib., 258.
[391] It is further explained, in the same Pahlavi tractate, that if from outward appearance it seems that good and evil alike spring from mankind it is because mankind are not perfect in goodness.⁷³ As sickness and death are due to the bodily imperfection of man, so does evil originate owing to his moral imperfection.⁷⁴ The two competing propensities existing in human nature cause these imperfections.⁷⁵	73 Sg. 8. 117,118. 74 Ib., 119-122. 75 Ib., 123.
Whence this evil propensity in the nature of man? Does it originate with him? Does man load the infirmities of the flesh and the inequities of his moral nature on the back of Ahriman and proclaim him as the source of all evil? If so, why circumscribe Ohrmazd's greatness by postulating this imaginary creature? But the general verdict of the Pahlavi writers is that evil is primeval in its origin; it is not relative, nor did man bring it into existence. It is enhanced when the flesh triumphs over the spirit, but it does not originate with the flesh. The father of evil is as real a personality as the father of goodness. We shall now peruse the life-story of this Prince of Darkness as narrated in the Pahlavi works
AHRIMAN
The primeval source of evil. If evil exists in reality, and is neither produced by Ohrmazd nor by man, then the only alternative is that it must have originated from an independent source. And so it is, say the Pahlavi works. Ahriman, or the Evil Spirit, called in Pahlavi Gana Menu (possibly to be read as Anrak Menu, from Av. Angra Mainyu), is its originator. As we have already seen in the Pahlavi writings, man does not simply objectify the basest and vilest in his own nature under the name of Ahriman; the rival spirit is a personality. He is an independent being, and is co-existent with Ohrmazd.⁷⁶ He abode from eternity in the abyss of endless darkness,⁷⁷ and, aflame with hatred, he rushed into the world at the beginning of creation to work for its destruction, as he constantly wages war against Ohrmazd and the good creation.⁷⁸ He is described as dwelling [392] eternally in darkness and gloom; and as wholly evil without goodness,^79-80 as the prime source of evil in the world,⁸¹ and as the producer of sin.⁸² Though it is possible for Ohrmazd to drive him out of the world, it is not thought necessary to do so now until the end of time, when Ohrmazd has determined his final defeat.⁸³	76 Dd. 37.21,26. 77 Bd. 1.3, 9. 78 Dk., vol. 10, bk.5.4, p. 6. 79-80 Zsp. 1.17; Dd. 37.28; Sd. 62.3. 81 Dk., vol. 5, p. 324, 325. 82 Dk., vol. 11, bk. 6.101, p. 16. 83 Dk., vol. 10, bk. 5.5, 6, p. 6, 7.
Ahriman is a spirit. As the very name of the arch-fiend indicates, he is a spirit, and as such can be thought of in the mind, but cannot be seen by the eye or grasped by the hand. Having no material existence, even the wicked souls, who are domiciled with him in hell, can only understand his nature but cannot see him.⁸⁴ The sainted priest Viraf, however, in his apocalyptic journey to hell sees him in the inferno.⁸⁵ In the beginning of creation he sprang like a snake from the sky to the earth,⁸⁶ and rushed upon the entire creation like a fly.⁸⁷ In one Pahlavi passage he is mentioned as possessing the body of a lizard,⁸⁸ though he could for his vile purposes assume the pleasing shape of a young man, as noted in the same connection. In allegorical references he is spoken of as assuming the form of a horse when subjugated by Tahmuras.⁸⁹	84 Dd. 19.1, 2, 5. 85 AV. 100.1. 86 Bd. 3.ll; Zsp. 2.3. 87 Bd. 3.14. 88 Bd. 3.9; 28.1. 89 Mkh. 27.21, 22.
Ahriman has backward knowledge. When the Evil Spirit defies Ohrmazd, the latter reminds him that he is not omniscient;⁹⁰ and does not, therefore, foresee his own final defeat.⁹¹ In fact he has only after-knowledge, and knows no event that is to come. He was not even aware of the existence of Ohrmazd, until he arose from the abyss;⁹² thus, though cunning, he is totally ignorant and blind.⁹³ He cannot attain to any knowledge pertaining to the Good Spirit,⁹⁴ and does not make any preparations to avert his coming downfall.⁹⁵ What scanty knowledge he possesses is evil and he will see the consequences of his ignorance at the time [393] of Renovation.⁹⁶ He is unobservant, stupid,⁹⁷ and ill-informed.⁹⁸ He is the after-thinker. Ignorance is the parent of many evils, and Ahriman is the very personification of it. Mani, in his heresy, ascribes foresight to Ahriman.⁹⁹	90 Bd. 1.16. 91 Dk., vol. 4, p. 258. 92 Bd. 1.9;Zsp. 1.2. 93 Bd. 1.19; Dk., vol. 8, p. 445; Gs. 122. 94 Dk., vol. 6, p. 416. 95 Dk., vol. 7, p. 462. 96 Dk., vol. 2, p. 108. 97 Bd. 1.19. 98 Dk., vol. 5, p. 324. 99 Sg. 16.23.
As the arch-enemy of Ohrmazd, Ahriman swears vengeance upon the good creation. The Evil Spirit is the avowed enemy of the creatures of Ohrmazd.¹⁰⁰ Being of malicious nature,¹⁰¹ and a blemish-giver,¹⁰² he ever wishes evil to all.¹⁰³ As the enemy of mankind, he ever strives to make man unhappy;¹⁰⁴ he is filled, in fact, with rancour against the entire creation; he is bent upon its destruction and never thinks, speaks, or does anything but harm to mankind.¹⁰⁵ Ohrmazd saw through his omniscience that the Evil Spirit would find scope for his work up to the time that the imperfections of the world were removed, and evil became eradicated. He therefore proposed peace to Ahriman, asking him to bring help unto the good creatures, and offering to make him in return immortal, undecaying, hungerless, and thirst-less.¹⁰⁶ The Evil Spirit thought that it was helplessness and weakness on the part of Ohrmazd that had thus compelled him to proffer peace, and rejected the divine offer.¹⁰⁷ He then defiantly answered the Good Spirit that not only would he never bring help and praise unto the good creation, but he would ever seek to destroy it and force the creatures into disaffection to Ohrmazd and affection for himself.¹⁰⁸ Ever since this first dispute with the Deity, Ahriman has firmly adhered to his resolve, and is so absorbed in contriving the ruin of his rival's creatures that he has never rested at ease since creation began.¹⁰⁹ He is bent upon perverting creatures from their own nature, in order, if possible, to prevent Ohrmazd from bringing about the resurrection and the renovation of the world and restoring his creatures.¹¹⁰ Having [394] created evil for the ruin of the good creation, he strives to wrest the supremacy from the hands of Ohrmazd,¹¹¹ for the idea of revenge eats like a canker into his heart. A righteous person of firm resolve can put him to flight, for he is a coward, just as the prophet Zoroaster routed him. In the beginning of creation when Ahriman first saw the angels and their prowess he fled precipitately back to the darkness of hell;¹¹² when next he beheld Ohrmazd's creation, he became languid, and when he learnt Ohrmazd's design of renovation he was stupefied, and fell on his knees;¹¹³ yet he remained resolute in his wicked purpose and has never ceased to vent his rage upon humanity.	100 Dd. 3.7; Dk., vol. 4, p. 208, 270; Gs. 127. 101 Bd. 1.10; Dd. 37.8, 10; Mkh. 10.5, 10. 102 Dk., vol. 5, p. 324, 325; vol. 6, p. 421; vol. 7, p. 445. 103 Bd. 1.8; Mkh. 8.23; Sg. 3,5. 104 Dk., vol. 7, p. 461. 105 Bd. 28.2. 106 Bd. 1.13. 107 Bd. 1, 15; Dk., vol. 8, p. 484, 485. 108 Bd. 1.14; Zsp. 1.6, 8; Sg. 4.12. 109 Bd. 28.3. 110 Sg. 12.72-74. 111 Bd. 28.1. 112 Bd. 6.1. 113 Dk., vol. 11, bk. 6.258, p. 100.
When Ahriman contemplates any harm to Ohrmazd, it recoils upon himself, and proves of advantage to his adversary; but when Ohrmazd does anything for his own advantage, it turns out of advantage to himself, and harm to Ahriman.¹¹⁴ He is able to mar the doings of Ohrmazd, but in only so far as it does not ultimately turn out for harm to Ohrmazd, for the final victory rests with Ohrmazd.¹¹⁵ It is said that Ohrmazd had created Yim, Fari-dun, and Kaus immortal, but that Ahriman rendered them mortal;¹¹⁶ yet when Ahriman contrived to make the monstrous Zohak, the wicked Afrasiab, and the accursed Sikandar immortal, Ohrmazd did not permit him to do it, as that would have meant incalculable harm to the good creation.¹¹⁷	114 Dd. 94.8; Dk., vol. 10, bk. 6.12, p. 4. 115 Mkh. 8. 24-26. 116 Mkh. 8. 27, 28. 117 Mkh. 8. 29, 30.
Ahriman lures man to destruction by deceit. He is the arch-deceiver,¹¹⁸ corrupting man's nature, and beguiling him into wickedness and sin.¹¹⁹ He lurks about to overtake man in his unguarded moments, and has stationed his sentinels for the purpose. Woe unto the man who is found weak in the moment of temptation. Ahriman desires that, man shall not actually recognize him, for if he once appraised the Evil Spirit at his true value, he would not follow him on the path of Wickedness.¹²⁰ Ahriman seduces man to give up the religion of Ohrmazd and embrace his evil faith, and exults when this object is achieved.¹²¹ [395] Inasmuch as he does not see that his work of deception will finally bring his own ruin, he deceives himself.¹²²	118 Dk., vol. 1, p. 22. 119 Dd. 37.8; Mkh. 45.8; Dk., vol. 8, p. 462; vol. 9, p. 624. 120 Bd. 28.40; Mkh. 40.26, 27; Dk., vol. 10, bk. 6.31, p. 10. 121 Bd. 28.4-6. 122 Dk., vol. 13, bk. 6; E. 38, p. 16.
Ahriman produces seductive demons to pervert mankind. The first creation of Ahriman was falsehood.¹²³ Afterwards he produced six chief demons, Akoman, Indar, Sovar, Nakahed, Tairev, Zairich as adversaries to the six archangels of Ohrmazd.¹²⁴ Besides this he produced many demons and fiends.¹²⁵ Mankind formerly did not commit crime,¹²⁶ and there was no sin,¹²⁷ but Ahriman implanted various vices in man's nature as the enemies of the soul; among such are avarice, covetousness, anger, jealousy, stubbornness, lust, enmity, idleness, apostasy, slander, ignorance, malice, stinginess, hatred, strife, and many other seductives that mislead men.¹²⁸ Ahriman meditates upon nothing but falsehood, wrath, malice, and discord;¹²⁹ and especially does he seek to conceal from man the reward of good deeds and the retribution of evil deeds, thus leading human creatures to wickedness and sin.¹³⁰ In designing man's ruin Ahriman does not consider his triumph over him complete unless he succeeds in effecting his spiritual destruction; nor does he deem it a victory merely to deprive a man of his life and wife, child and fortune; but he must succeed in seducing his soul.¹³¹ Nothing satisfies his voracity so much as the capture of a human soul.	123 Bd. 1.24. 124 Bd. 1.24, 27. 125 Bd. 1.10. 126 Mkh. 13.6. 127 Dk., vol. 6, p. 421. 128 Bd. 3.17; Dd. 37.53, 54; Dk., vol. 6, p. 354; vol. 8, p. 469; vol. 10, bk. 5.4, p. 6; Gs. 10, 11. 129 Mkh. 10.5. 130 Mkh. 13.7-10. 131 Mkh. 46.4, 5.
Ahriman introduces disease and death into the world. When Ahriman first entered the world, he plagued mankind, and introduced death among the living beings;¹³² thus misery and affliction entered the world through him.¹³³ And all the ills human flesh is heir to are from him. He smote the progenitor of animals and made the primeval man mortal.¹³⁴ Disease, destruction, and death are identified with Ahriman, and form his chief work.¹³⁵	132 Bd. 3.17; Dd. 37.72, 81; Dk., vol. 2, p. 92, 93. 133 Mkh. 37.10; 42.6, 7. 134 Dd. 37.46, 82. 135 Zsp. 5.4; Dk., vol. 4, p. 233, 238; vol. 12, bk. 6.308, p. 25.
[396] Ahriman infests the earth with noxious creatures. One of the many malicious acts of Ahriman, to thwart the creation of Ohrmazd, is his creation of biting and venomous creatures, such as the snake, scorpion, frog, lizard, and many others, in so great a number that the noxious creatures did not leave an empty space on earth to the size of the point of a needle.¹³⁶ Hence killing these noxious creatures and extirpating their burrows are meritorious deeds.¹³⁷	136 Bd. 3.15; Zsp 2.9. 137 SLS. 20.5; Mkh. 5.8; Sd. 43.1-10; Dk., vol. 12, bk. 6. 317, p. 29.
Ahriman disfigures Ohrmazd's creation. Smoke and darkness were mingled with fire by the Evil Spirit;¹³⁸ the trees that grew on the earth before the appearance of Ahriman had neither thorns, nor rough bark, nor was poison mixed with any of their species. It was Ahriman who introduced these into vegetation, also blight to wither it.¹³⁹ Thus he brings disfigurement upon the creatures of Ohrmazd,¹⁴⁰ and exultingly cries out that everything of Ohrmazd has been assailed by him and spoiled.¹⁴¹ Over against each one of Ohrmazd's good creations there is balanced an evil one of Ahriman.	138 Bd. 3.24; Zsp. 2.11. 139 Bd, 3.16; 27.1. 140 Zsp. 4.10. 141 Zsp. 4.3.
The end of Ahriman. One of the essential proofs of Ahriman's inequality with Ohrmazd is that he is not eternal. As has been noted above, although he was co-eval and co-equal with Ohrmazd, he is not co-eternal, because there will be a time when he will cease to exist.¹⁴² Ohrmazd and Ahriman are therefore not actually balanced equally against each other. As mankind advances in righteousness, and succeeds in weakening the dominion of wickedness, Ahriman will be baffled in his vile attempts to tempt men to the wicked path.¹⁴³ Ahriman will then find his resources exhausted and will become impotent and confounded.¹⁴⁴ Being completely overpowered,¹⁴⁵ and broken,¹⁴⁶ predominating no longer,¹⁴⁷ he will become afflicted and miserable.¹⁴⁸ He will bow his unwilling knees to the divine authority. Thus baffled, [397] he will flee into darkness and be fettered in hell in perpetual sorrow.¹⁴⁹ We are informed in another place that when he is thus defeated, he will rush back to hell,¹⁵⁰ and disappear.¹⁵¹ Still other passages state that he will be repulsed and slain.¹⁵² Ahriman exists in the world so long as he can find his lodgment even in one man in the world, but when, owing to the goodness of men, he will be completely cast out from human bodies, he will be exterminated.¹⁵³ He will enter into nothingness.¹⁵⁴	142 Bd. 1.3; Gs. 129; Dk., vol. 12, bk. 6. 278, p. 7. 143 Dk., vol. l, p. 22. 144 Dd. 37.15, 20, 64; Mkh. 8.13; Gs. 158. 145 Dk., vol. 5, p. 314, 324. 146 Dk., vol. 7, p. 458. 147 Dd. 7.3. 148 Dk., vol. 5, p. 346; vol. 7, p.461; Gs. 157. 149 Dk., vol. 3, p. 150. 150 Dk., vol. 8, p. 441, 486. 151 Dd. 37.71, 122; Dk., vol. 8, p. 436, 445; Jsp. p. 109. 152 Dk., vol. 9, p. 627; Jsp. p. 120. 153 Dk., vol. 8, p. 436; vol. 11 bk. 6.264, p. 102. 154 Dd. 37.59, 114; Mkh. 57.6; Dk., vol. 12, bk. 6.297, p. 13.
The final disappearance of evil from the world. With the disappearance of the Father of Evil, goodness will completely rout evil.¹⁵⁵ The great conflict between good and evil will eventually end in perfecting good and in eliminating evil.¹⁵⁶ Moral and physical imperfections will vanish; for vice and impiety, wickedness and sin, demons and fiends, disease and death will be no more.¹⁵⁷ The dual nature of the creatures of good and evil will be supplanted by the single characteristic of goodness. The evil creatures will perish.¹⁵⁸	155 Dk., vol. 5, p. 326. 156 Dd. 37.122. 157 Dd. 37.120, 121; Mkh. 8.14, 15. 158 Bd. 1.7.
DIVS
The emissaries of Ahriman. There are six arch-fiends created by Ahriman in exact opposition to the archangels; and there are also other minor demons as their evil confederates.¹⁵⁹ They love evil for its own sake. Hell is the specific habitat assigned to them, and from there they rush to the summit of Mount Arezur to hold their infernal council.¹⁶⁰ The north is believed to be the region of Ahriman and demons, just as the south is that of Ohrmazd and angels; and darkness is the steadfast quality of this fiendish crew.¹⁶¹	159 Bd. 28.12. 160 Dd. 33.3, 5. 161 Dd. 37.85.
Their work. The diabolical host works for procuring success for Ahriman. They will do this up to the end of the world.¹⁶² [398] The strongest and most triumphant of their weapons against man is deceit;¹⁶³ they lead man to sin through it.¹⁶⁴ Every demon is an instigator of some evil; on that account, man should always entertain an abhorrence for the demons. He should array himself on the side of the angels, and join in the fight against the demons, who always contemplate harm to man.¹⁶⁵ When they have sway over man's doings, righteousness is arrested and wickedness thrives,¹⁶⁶ for man becomes sinful and wicked in their company.¹⁶⁷ They take up their abode in him when his innate wisdom forsakes him;¹⁶⁸ whence once possessed by demons, he is possessed by evil knowledge.¹⁶⁹ The demons seize upon and carry off one-third of the wisdom and glory of that man who eats in the dark without washing his hands.¹⁷⁰ Procrastination on the part of man also helps the demons; for example, when a man is in the habit of postponing some good work from day to day, until he is overtaken by death, and the good deed remains unaccomplished, the demons are greatly rejoiced.¹⁷¹ Persons who associate with the wicked in this world get demons for their companions in the next.¹⁷² The fire of Ohrmazd chases the demons and puts them to flight; for, when a large number of them rushed to destroy the child Zoroaster at his birth, they could not harm him owing to the presence of the fire.¹⁷³ Zoroaster brought them all to his feet, and forced them to rush headlong into the jaws of hell. Just as the sheep is terrified by the smell of the wolf, so do the demons tremble when they smell the soul of a righteous person.¹⁷⁴ The demons will live so long as man will have something of the demon in him. When righteousness at last shall triumph in the world, and the world of humanity reach perfection at the final renovation, the demons will sink into their native darkness, and perish forever.¹⁷⁵	162 Dd. 37.59. 163 Ib., 87. 164 Dk., vol. 2, p. 67. 165 Dk., vol. 12, bk. 6. 307, p. 24. 166 Dk., vol. 2, p. 68. 167 Dk., vol. 3. p. 166, 167; vol. 7, p. 459. 168 Dk., vol. 3, p. 159. 169 Dk., vol. 3, p. 166. 170 SLS. 9.8. 171 Dk., vol. 11, bk. 6.89, p. 3. 172 Dk., vol. 11, bk. 6.133, p. 39. 173 SLS. 10.4; 12.11. 174 Afrin-i Ardâfarvash in Pazend Texts, p. 84. 175 Dd. 37.20.
[399] AKOMAN
Ahriman’s premier. As Vohuman is the first celestial being in the good creation, so Akoman, Evil Mind, ranks first among the evil creatures. Ahriman first produced Falsehood and after that Akoman,¹⁷⁶ as a consequence of which they often work in concert.¹⁷⁷ Still another text speaks of Akoman and Varun as created together.¹⁷⁸ Akoman came out from the dark world of Ahriman;¹⁷⁹ and of all the fiends this demon of perversion is most to be dreaded.¹⁸⁰	176 Bd. 1.24. 177 Dd. 37.53. 178 Dk., vol. 3, p. 158, 159. 179 Bd. 1.27. 180 Dk., vol. 9, p. 625.
His attempt to enter the mind of the prophet Zaratusht when a child to pervert it is frustrated by Vohuman. When Ahriman learnt of the birth of Zaratusht, who was to be a sure weapon of destruction against the Kingdom of Wickedness, he sent Akoman with instructions to enter the infant's mind deceitfully and pervert it.¹⁸¹ The fiend approached the house in which Zaratusht was born and contemplated entering by the door.¹⁸² But being as stupid and ignorant as his father he was easily defeated by his own weapon of deceit being turned against him. Vohuman, who had chased him to the spot, schemingly turned back and asked him to enter the house. Akoman thought that as his rival was leaving the place, his own work was finished, and consequently returned without accomplishing anything.¹⁸³ Akoman, moreover, is generally said to frighten children at their birth with the ghastly picture of their sufferings at the Renovation, and this is given as a reason why children cry at birth.¹⁸⁴	181 Zsp. 14.8. 182 Zsp. 14.9. 183 Zsp. 14.10, 11. 184 Dk., vol. 8, p. 439.
Evil thoughts in man come from Akoman. In opposition to Vohuman, Akoman gives evil thoughts to men and causes discord.¹⁸⁵ It is owing to those evil thoughts of his that man becomes wicked.¹⁸⁶ Man has to purge himself of vicious thoughts. Unless he does this, he finds himself driven hither and thither [400] like a shuttlecock, influenced now by Vohuman, now by Akoman. The man whose will is ruled by Akoman fails to discriminate between good and evil,¹⁸⁷ for the friendship of Akoman makes one vicious,¹⁸⁸ and he who entertains Akoman as his guest turns out to be wicked.¹⁸⁹ Such a man courts spiritual destruction.¹⁹⁰ When Akoman prevails over Vohuman in the mind of man, his intelligence becomes blunted and he loses greatness in both the worlds,¹⁹¹ inasmuch as righteousness flees from him and he is steeped in sin.¹⁹² He is even spoken of as introducing physical evil in the world,¹⁹³ even as he brings evil knowledge of religion to man's mind,¹⁹⁴ and makes him miserable.¹⁹⁵	185 Bd. 28.7. 186 Dk., SBE., vol. 37, bk. 9.69.21, p. 388. 187 Dk., SBE., vol. 37, bk. 9.30.8, p. 243. 188 Dk., vol. 6, p. 357. 189 Dk., vol. 10, bk. 6.78, p. 21; 87, p. 25; vol. 11, bk. 6.193, p. 69. 190 Dk., vol. 6, p. 410. 191 Dk., vol. 1, p. 28; vol. 3, p. 152. 192 Dk., vol. l, p. 28. 193 Dk., vol. 6, p. 411. 194 Dk., vol. 6, p. 414. 195 Dk., vol. 8, p. 466.
DRUJ
The change wrought in the conception of her work. This personification of wickedness and deceit has by this time lost her distinctive individuality, and consequently she no longer remains an exclusive rival of Artavahisht, or Best Righteousness. In fact her name is not mentioned as Ahriman's counter-creation against Artavahisht. Indar, as we shall see in the sequel, usurps her place as Artavahisht's recognized adversary. Druj no longer in the Pahlavi period stands exclusively as the class designation of the female demons, which in earlier times was her chief characteristic. The term is at times promiscuously applied to male and female demons alike; in fact it now designates demon in general. Ahriman himself is most frequently termed Druj; and several demons are simultaneously termed divs as well as drujes in one and the same text.¹⁹⁶ The evil passions of man are personified as drujes.¹⁹⁷ These abide in man to pervert his nature,¹⁹⁸ for Ahriman has created the drujes;¹⁹⁹ he is their leader,²⁰⁰ and is himself the arch-druj.	196 Bd. 28.11, 13, 14, 20, 33. 197 Mkh. 41.8-11. 198 Dd. 94.1. 199 Bd. 1.10. 200 Dk., vol. 7, p. 458.
[401] Druj's work. The wicked deeds of man further the evil power of Druj in the world. When man leaves the blessed company of Ohrmazd, he is easily overpowered by her,²⁰¹ who makes his life miserable and full of blemish.²⁰² So long as he remains under her damaging influence, he cannot work on behalf of his creator.²⁰³ Druj Nasu, the embodiment of pollution, performs her work of defilement.²⁰⁴	201 Dk., vol. 7, p. 496. 202 Dk., vol. 8, p. 475. 203 Dk., vol. 8, p. 473. 204 Dd. 17.7, 8.
What puts her to flight. Recital of the holy spells, the heartfelt expiation on the part of the sinner, and the performance of righteous deeds will drive Druj out of man,²⁰⁵ she flees fat from a man of religious inclination.²⁰⁶ It is the duty of man, therefore, to drive away the various drujes that may surround him.²⁰⁷ Ohrmazd has endowed him with the knowledge whereby to rout them,²⁰⁸ and has given him strength commensurate with his needs. The angels help to drive out Druj from the creation, an act that will contribute to furthering the work of the Renovation.²⁰⁹ When the world reaches the state of goodness, Druj will be impotent and perish.²¹⁰
INDAR
Transformation of a great Indian divinity into an execrated demon in Persia. In the Pahlavi texts Ahriman is represented to have created Indar as the opponent of ArtaVahisht.²¹¹ In Ys. 48.1, Druj is glossed in Pahlavi by Indar. His personality is again quite ill-defined. He does not personify Wickedness proper, as the opponent of Artavahisht should logically do in the dualistic system; but his chief business is to drive the thoughts of men from virtuous deeds, and incite them to do away with the sacred shirt and girdle,²¹² He will be routed by Artavahisht in the final struggle.²¹³	205 Dk., vol. 1, p. 5; vol. 12, bk. 6. 315, p. 27, 28. 206 Dk., vol. 2, p. 110; vol. 6, p. 363. 207 Dk., vol. 11, bk. 6.130. p. 36, 37; SBE., 47, bk. 7.1.6, p. 5. 208 Dk., vol.4, p. 245, 269. 209 Dk., vol. 2, p. 111, 112; vol. 6, p. 417. 210 Dk., vol. 7, p. 458. 211 Phl. Vd. 19.43; Bd. 1.27. 212 Bd. 28.8, 10; Dk., SBE., vol. 37, bk. 9.9.1, p. 181, 182. 213 Bd. 30.29.
[402] SOVAR
Enemy of the divine Kingdom of Righteousness. The business of this demon is, by introducing tyranny and anarchy into the world, to thwart the efforts of Shatravar towards establishing the Divine Kingdom upon earth.²¹⁴ He is delighted if the faithful discard their sacred shirts and girdles.²¹⁵ He falls before his rival and perishes at the final conflagration wrought by the flood of molten metal at the end of the world.²¹⁶	214 Bd. 28.9. 215 Bd. 28.10. 216 Bd. 30.29.
TAROMAT
The demon that dries up the spring of devotion in man. This demon, residing in the human will, produces disobedience,²¹⁷ and dissuades man from following the dictates of Spandarmad;²¹⁸ but he will meet with his end on the last day at the hands of Spandarmad.²¹⁹	217 Bd. 28.14. 218 Dd. 94.2. 219 Bd 30.29.
NAONGHAS
Taromat's confederate. This demon is identified with Taromat,²²⁰ and is ranked as the opponent of Spandarmad. His Avestan counterpart is Naonghaithya. He gives discontent to creatures and is delighted when one goes without shirt and girdle.²²¹	220 Bd. 30.29. 221 Bd. 28.10.
TAIREV
The opponent of the archangel of perfection. The demon is the adversary of Khurdad²²² and mingles poison with plants,²²³ and is rejoiced when one walks barefooted.²²⁴ He will lie low before his opponent.²²⁵	222 Phl. Vd. 19.43. 223 Bd. 28.11. 224 Bd. 28.13. 225 Bd. 30.29.
ZAIRICH
Tairev's comrade. He also poisons plants²²⁶ and other eatables.²²⁷ He is the enemy of Amardad,²²⁸ who will finally vanquish him.²²⁹	226 Bd. 28.11. 227 Dd. 37.52. 228 Phl. Vd. 19.43. 229 Bd. 30.29.
[403] ASTOVIDAD
This demon of death casts his deadly noose around all. He it is who causes the painful separation of the soul from the body and brings death.²³⁰ He casts around the necks of all that are born in this world a noose which cannot be thrown off by any one during life. But at the dissolution of the body, when the soul emerges from its prison of clay, it can shake off the halter if it is righteous, but is dragged to hell by means of this rope if it is wicked.²³¹ When the wicked demon Astovidad strokes a man, he causes lethargy; when he lays his hands on the sick, he makes him feverish; when he looks the victim in the eye, with his deadly gaze, he deprives him of life.²³² He was sent by Ahriman in the beginning of creation to slay the primeval man;²³³ and ever since that time he has been destroying all, and yet he knows no check.²³⁴	230 Dk., vol. 10, bk. 5.19, p. 16. 231 Bd. 3.22; Dd. 23.3; Dk., vol. 7, p. 494, 495; Gs. 141. 232 Bd. 28.35. 233 Bd. 3.21;Zsp. 4.4. 234 Mkh. 2.117.
VIZARSH
Astovidad's collaborator. The demon Vizarsh²³⁵ frightens the souls during the three nights of their stay in this world after death.²³⁶ He sits at the gate of hell, ready to drag the wicked souls down to the infernal depths, as soon as they are sentenced to hell by the heavenly judges. When the souls approach the bridge, he contends with Srosh for their possession.²³⁷ He casts a noose around the neck of all persons. The righteous ones are able to free themselves from it, but the wicked ones are entangled in it, and are dragged into the infernal abyss by it.²³⁸	235 Av. Vizaresha. 236 Bd. 28.18; cf. Bd. Modi, An untranslated chapter of the Bundehesh, 2. 237 Mkh. 2.162. 238 Phl. Vd. 19.29.
ESHM
An impetuous assailant of man. This demon, Eshm,²³⁹ who has no bodily existence,²⁴⁰ occasions trouble in the World by [404] contests.²⁴¹ He swells man's spirit to wrath. He contrives all evil, and he attacks mankind with the sevenfold strength of a fiend,²⁴² and man loses his senses when Eshm overpowers him.²⁴³ He rejoices when man disregards the admonitions of a religious preceptor,²⁴⁴ and any man in whom he makes his abode acts like a thief.²⁴⁵ Destruction follows where he steps in.²⁴⁶ For example, through his seductiveness he made King Kaus discontented with his earthly possessions, and bred in him a burning desire for conquering the heavenly regions,²⁴⁷ in which attempt to fly up to the sky he fell to his undoing. He incites Arjasp, the arch-enemy of Zoroastrianism, to invade the territories of Gushtasp, who had embraced Zoroaster's faith,²⁴⁸ but Arjasp's ruin followed. Terrible as was the condition of Iran when Afrasiab, and still earlier when the monstrous Zohak ruled over her destinies,²⁴⁹ it would have been immeasurably worse had Eshm been the earthly sovereign.²⁵⁰ When he fails to spread discord and quarrelling among, the righteous, he works among the wicked to the same end, and again if defeat meets him here too, he causes strife among the demons and fiends.²⁵¹ He contests the passage of the soul to the Bridge on the dawn of the fourth day after man's death.²⁵² One of the Pahlavi commentators speaks of him as the antagonist of Vohuman,²⁵³ but his special adversary is Srosh, who will smite him in the end.²⁵⁴	239 Av. Aeshma. 240 Mkh. 27.37. 241 Dd. 37.52. 242 Bd. 28.15, 17. 243 Dk., vol. 3, p. 152. 244 Bd. 28.20. 245 Dk.,. vol. 3, p. 138. 246 Bd. 28.16. 247 Dk., SEE., vol. 37, bk. 9.22.5, 6, p. 221. 248 Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.4.87, p. 72. 249 Dk., vol. 7, p. 454, 455. 250 Mkh. 27.34-36. 251 Dd. 37.104. 252 Mkh. 2.115, 117. 253 Phl. Vd. 19.43. 254 Bd. 30.29; Mkh. 8.14.
Aposh
Tishtar's antagonist. The Pahlavi works mainly repeat the account of this demon's encounter with Tishtar, that is, how the angel of rain fled a mile away in terror when he was first assaulted by this demon of drought, but how he later, after having begged more strength from Ohrmazd and received it, at last overpowered [405] powered his adversary.²⁵⁵ This demon struggles always to stop the rain from falling; and failing in this, he strives to convert its flow into a cause of damage.²⁵⁶ Aposh is the chief cause of drought,²⁵⁷ but the evil eye of the greedy rulers and false judges falling on the rain, prevents its fall;²⁵⁸ and in this act Spenjagra, another demon, joins with him.²⁵⁹	255 Bd. 7. 8-10; Zsp. 6. 9-11. 256 Dd. 93.12. 257 Bd. 28.39. 258 Dk., vol. 3, p. 148. 259 Bd. 7. 12; 28. 39; Dk., vol. 3, p. 148.
Jeh
A powerful demoness. Ahriman has created the menses in women; and Jeh is the demoness of menstruation. She is so powerful that her very look smites as nothing else could do.²⁶⁰ When Ahriman first saw man, Ohrmazd's best creation in the world, he was confounded; and coward as he is, he fell prostrate bewailing. His evil confederates tried all in their power to give him courage but to no purpose, until finally Jeh, by her beguiling devices, succeeded in reclaiming him from impotency and dejection.²⁶¹	260 SLS. 3. 29. 261 Bd. 3. 1-7.
The inmates in the house of ill-fame are her creatures. It is at her promptings that they bring upon earth this darkest curse that blights human life.
Other Demons
The author of the Bundahishn tells us that every single demon is accompanied by many more, and it would be tedious to enumerate them all here. They are certainly very numerous, and much of their defiling nature is mingled up in the bodies of men.²⁶² In fact, there are as many demons as the sins that man commits.²⁶³ The following are the demons and fiends who are mentioned in the texts, but about whom nothing special is known. They are Mitokht and Arast (falsehood), Arashk (malice), Bushasp (sloth), Uda (chattering while eating), Zarman (decrepitude), Akatash (perversion), Oshtohad (excessive winter), [406] Chishmak (disaster), Varun (lust), Sej (decay), Az (avarice), Niyaz (distress), Nas (defilement), Push (stinginess), Friftar (seducer), Spazg (slander), Aighash and Sur Chashmih (evil eye), But (idol), Kundak (wizard), Kashvish (revenge), Drivish (poverty), Daiwish (deceit), Nung (shame), Paitish, Dadani, Frazisht, Nizisht, and Safle.²⁶⁴	262 Bd. 28.37,38. 263 Bd. 28.43. 264 For minor demons see Gray, The Foundation of the Iranian Religions, p. 224-226.
[407] CHAPTER XLIV
LIFE AFTER DEATH
Death is the completion of life. The faithful is warned, in the Pahlavi texts as in the Avesta, that he should always remember the transitory state of earthly existence, the death of the body, and the responsibility of his soul;¹ for, in the end, the body will be mingled with the dust, but the soul will survive; and man should therefore labour for the future welfare of the soul.² Death is the completion and perfection of life.³ It is not an extinction of individuality, but a transfer from one state to another; it is the transition of the soul to a higher life, in which it gives up one duty to take up another.⁴ Death brings the dissolution of the body, the earthly elements are dispersed, and the spiritual elements accompany the soul, which now proceeds to the next world to render the account of its deeds.⁵ The body served as the garment of the soul as long as the soul wore it during life, but when it is outworn the soul flings it behind it. The body is likened, in more than one Pahlavi passage, to a house, of which the soul is a tenant; for when the body is divested of vital power and falls to the ground, the master of the house leaves it to crumble into dust.⁶ Just as a rider becomes helpless without his saddle and his weapons to overthrow his enemy, so does the soul lose all hopes of routing the Druj, when the body perishes; for the soul is the lord of life and conducts the battle between good and evil.⁷ It is the master of the body.⁸ The body becomes useless and perishes when the soul leaves it.⁹	1 Mkh. 18. 3. 2 Mkh. 1.22, 23; AnAtM. 105. 3 Dk., vol. 5, p. 330. 4 Sg. 4.87; 12.79. 5 Bd. 17.9; Sg. 4.88-92; Dk., vol. 6, p. 359. 6 Dd. 23.6; AnAtM. 142. 7 Dk.,vol. 6, p. 354. 8 Dd. 3.8. 9 Dk., vol. 3, p. 150, 175.
Man should not put his trust in the possessions of this earth; [408] his happiness is but the passing cloud of a rainy day; riches and wealth, titles and honours, distinctions of birth and race-all will be of no avail when death will at last come upon him.¹⁰ Body is the lineament of man; he should not mistake it as his real self. Whoso moulds his actions with the higher object of the welfare of his soul gains this world by leaving good name and fame behind him, and obtains the next as his reward; but the slave to passions and evil desires, who lives solely for the body, loses both this world and the next as well.¹¹ The body of the one is lean in this world, but his soul is fat in heaven, whereas a man who pines after bodily pleasures is fattened in body in this world, but his soul is hungry and lean in the next world.¹² There is a remedy for every thing, but not for death.¹³ A man may live a hundred years in this world, but death will at last overtake him.¹⁴ Then at last he will sleep in the deep silence of death. The closed eyes will not open; the heart will not throb; hands and feet will not move; and the prince and peasant will leave the world in exactly the same manner.¹⁵ The body will then be removed to its final resting-place, where go the great and the small, the master and the servant, the righteous and the wicked alike.¹⁶	10 Mkh. 2.98-110. 11 Mkh. 21.10. 12 BYt. 2.56. 13 Dk., vol. 12, bk. 6. A.6, p. 37. 14 AnAtM. 139. 15 AnAtM. 143. 16 AnAtM. 145.
A man may avoid the danger of tigers and wild beasts, of robbers and inimical persons, but he cannot live without fear of the demon of death.¹⁷ He is helpless when death swoops down on him. Some die at an early age, almost as if they had never been born, and even those that live long have ultimately to quit the world.¹⁸ Life is short in this world but long in the next.¹⁹ Man should practice such good deeds during his lifetime that on his death-bed he should think it would have been better had he done even more of them, and avoid such acts for which he would have to wish during the last moments of his life that they had not been performed.²⁰ The individual who has been indifferent [409] in his devotions to the Lord is distressed when death approaches and thinks of him the more.²¹	17 Dk., vol. 7, p. 452, 453. 18 Gs. 165. 19 AnKhK. 5. 20 Dk., vol. 10, bk. 6.17, p. 6. 21 Dk., vol. 5, p. 279.
Srosh's help indispensable for the disembodied souls. At death the soul shakes off the fetters of the body. This severance of the soul from the body is fraught with momentous difficulties for the former. As an infant that is just born in this world requires care from a midwife and others, so does a soul that has just emerged from the body require help and protection against evil influences. It is said that the righteous Srosh acts at this juncture as a midwife to the righteous soul in its bewilderment, and does not let it go into the clutches of Ahriman.²² It is therefore deemed advisable to secure the services of this angel even in advance by propitiating him with rituals during the lifetime of the individual. But if that has not been the case, his relatives should never fail to offer sacrifices in his honour immediately after death and continue them for the three days and three nights that the soul stays in this world after death.²³ Besides watching and protecting the soul at this critical period, Srosh is also, one of the judges who will then take account of the soul. It is indispensable, therefore, to order ceremonies to be performed for Srosh during the time that the soul tarries in this world before embarking on its celestial journey.²⁴	22 Sd. 58.7. 23 Dd. 28.5; SLS. 17.3; Sd. 58.5, 6, 8, 9. 24 Dd. 28. 6.
The souls visualize the good or bad deeds of the lives they have just completed. In conformity with the statement of the Avestan texts, the Pahlavists also depict the human souls as hovering about the head of the dead for three nights after death, experiencing joy or grief, according as they have lived in righteousness or wickedness.²⁵ It is stated that during the first night satisfaction from their good thoughts comes to the souls and vexation from their evil thoughts, during the second night satisfaction from their good words and vexation from their evil words, and during the third night satisfaction from their good deeds and vexation from their evil deeds.²⁶ The demon Vizarsh struggles with the souls during this period.²⁷ The souls experience [410] as much pleasure or pain during these nights as they have had during their whole life on earth.²⁸ The soul of the wicked person, over whose head hangs the coming retribution, now wishes that it could re-enter the body for some time in order to make up for the faults and shortcomings of the life that it has just finished.²⁹ Mohammedanism, in the same manner, refers to the desire of the soul of the dead person to be sent back to the bodily life that it can practise good deeds that have been left undone. As a rider requires a horse, so the soul needs a body, without which it is unable to act in this world.³⁰ It now discovers, when it is too late, that it has lost the opportunity and worked all the while for naught. It feels as if it had thrown away all good deeds either into the fire to be burnt or into the water to be drowned instead of practising them and storing them up for its own merit.³¹ It wishes it had enjoyed less in the world below and practised virtue more,³² and it realizes too late that the most precious period of its earthly life is now lost beyond recovery.	25 Bd. Modi, An untranslated chapter of the Bundehesh, 2; Mkh. 2.114, 156-160; Dd. 20.2; 24.2; 25.2; AV. 4.9-14; 17.2-9; Hn. 2.2-5; 3.2-5. 26 Dd. 24.4; 25.4. 27 Bd. 28.18; Modi, op. cit., 2. 28 Hn. 2.6, 11, 16; 3.5, 10, 16. 29 Dd. 16.4. 30 Dk., vol. 6, p. 380, 381. 31 Dk., vol. 11, bk. 6.219, p. 82. 32 Dk., vol. 11, bk. 6. 211, p. 78.
The souls escorted by the genii of their own deeds to the other world. At the end of the third night when the dawn breaks, the souls undertake their memorable journey with the co-operation of the good angels Srosh, Vae the good, and Varhran; in the midst of the opposition of Astovidat, of Vae the bad, Frazisht, Nizisht, and Eshm. When the souls pass from the midst of the sweet-scented trees, if they are righteous, or from among foul-scented trees, if they are wicked, they meet their conscience, the righteous soul beholding her in the form of a beautiful damsel, personifying the store of its own good works, but the wicked soul seeing a hideous woman, typifying the store of its own evil deeds.³³ In addition to the escort of the angelic figure or the fiendish apparition, the Denkard and some copies of the Bundahishn mention that a beautiful fat cow and a fair garden, as well as this damsel, are met with by a righteous soul, while an ugly, lean cow and a barren desert, besides the hideous hag, are encountered by a wicked soul.³⁴ The description of the celestial [411] journey and of the happenings on the way, as found in the Menuk-i Khrat, differs a little from the other works. These, in agreement with the accounts in the Avestan texts, depict the soul as meeting its daena prior to its crossing the bridge, but Menuk-i Khrat brings her on the scene after the soul has passed the bridge. Besides, the pious soul is made to converse on the Way with Srosh, which is not the case in the other texts.	33 Bd. Modi, op. cit., 5-7; Dd. 24.5; 25.5; Mkh. 2.115, 127-181; AV. 4.15-36; 17.10-26; Dk., vol. 2, p. 82, 83; Hn. 2.19-32; 3. 17-20. 34 Bd. Modi, op. cit., 5, 7; Dk., vol. 2, p. 83.
The heavenly judges. The Pahlavi works give us an elaborate account of the way in which justice is administered to the souls after death. The reckoning takes place on the dawn of the fourth day.³⁵ Throughout the entire life of the mortals it is the duty of Vohuman to note down three times each day the good and evil deeds of everyone, both men and women, in the book of life.³⁶ Mihr, Srosh, and Rashn sit as judges in the hereafter to take account of the souls that approach the bridge.³⁷ Unlike the human judges who base their decisions on the biased or fallible evidence of the witnesses for the plaintiff or the accused, the divine judges need only to scan with their spiritual eyes the record kept by an archangel, and then to acquit or sentence the souls accordingly.³⁸ Rashn holds the balance in his hands and weighs the good and evil deeds of the souls so impartially that the scales do not turn wrongfully, even by a hair's breadth in favour of a righteous man or of a wicked, of a lord or of a king, but work equally in case of the peasant and the prince.³⁹ Job makes a solemn protestation of his integrity and says that let God weigh him in an even balance that he may know the truth.⁴⁰ The works of the dead are similarly weighed in a balance according to the teachings of Mohammed. Injustice and partiality have no place in this celestial court, which is administered with stern but exact equity.⁴¹	35 Dd. 13.2; 20.3; Gs. 133. 36 Dd. 14.2. 37 Dd. 14.3.4; Mkh. 2.118. 38 Dk., vol. 7, p. 451. 39 Mkh. 2.119-122. 40 Job. 31.6; cf. Proverbs, 16.2; 1 Samuel 2.3. 41 Sg. 4.98,99.
Location of the Bridge of Judgment. All the righteous as well as the wicked souls have to proceed to this bridge for judgment, where the account of the souls takes place.42 The bridge rests on the peak called 'the peak of justice,' situated in the [412] middle of the world in Iranvej, and is of the height of a hundred men. The two extremities of the bridge rest on the northern and southern ridges of Mount Alburz.⁴³	42 Bd. 12.7; Mkh. 2.115; Gs. 133; AnAtM. 139, 147. 43 Phl. Vd. 19.30; Bd. 12.7; cf. Modi, op. cit., 1; Dd. 21.2.
The bridge provides a wide passage to the pious souls, but confronts the wicked with its sharp edge. The bridge is guarded by the angels and the spiritual dogs.⁴⁴ It is broad as a beam and has many sides. Some of these are twenty-seven reeds in width or nine spears or nine javelins or even a league in width, whereas the others are as sharp as the edge of a razor.⁴⁵ The bridge is so arranged that it presents its broad side when a righteous soul passes over it, and gives it an easy passage, but puts forward its thin edge when a wicked soul attempts to cross it.⁴⁶ According to Mohammedanism all souls have to cross the Bridge as-Sirat which lies across heaven and hell. It is finer than a hair and sharper than the edge of a sword. It gives an easy passage to the righteous souls, but the souls of the wicked cannot cross it and fall headlong into hell. The pious soul is helped by Srosh, Atar, and by its own conscience to cross the bridge and go to its destination, but the impious one falls headlong into hell.⁴⁷ A passage adds that, the fire Frabag smites the darkness and enables a pious soul to pass over the narrow edge in the form of fire.⁴⁸ Furthermore, Vae, the angel of wind,, takes such a soul by its hand and escorts it to its proper place.⁴⁹ Of all the wicked souls the one of a malicious man finds it most difficult to cross the bridge, for malice is a sin which does not affect the sinner only, but generally abides in a lineage.⁵⁰ The wicked soul complains that it would prefer being cut by a sharp knife or pierced by an arrow to its being obliged to cross the terrible bridge.⁵¹	44 Bd. Modi, op. cit., 1. 45 Bd. Modi, op. cit., 1; Dd. 21.3, 5; Mkh. 2.123; AV. 5.1. 46 Bd Modi, op. cit., 10; Dd. 21.5, 7; 85.7. 47 Bd. Modi, op. cit., 10, 11, 13; Dd 20.4; 21.7; 25.6; 34.3, 4; Mkh. 2.124; AnKhK. 5. 48 Bd. Modi, op. cit., 9. 49 Ib, 11. 50 Mkh. 21.19. 51 Bd. Modi, op. cit., 14.
Insane persons and children are not accountable for their own deeds, but their parents are responsible. All those that are mentally unsound and also children are not held responsible for their deeds, but are considered eligible for paradise.⁵² We [413] are further told in another passage of the Pahlavi texts that the children accompany their parents either to heaven or hell as the latter have deserved.⁵³ The children that have thus entered hell with their wicked parents are separated from them if due ceremonies are performed in honour of Srosh by their relatives, and may then proceed to heaven.⁵⁴	52 Dk., vol. 2, p. 89, 90; vol. 3, p. 144; vol. 4, p. 189, 190. 53 Sd. 47.2. 54 Sd 47.3.
The method of administering justice in the heavenly tribunal. Among the ancient Egyptians when the soul appeared before the heavenly tribunal, its heart was weighed in a balance. Similarly, the ordinary way of judging the souls according to the Pahlavi writers, is said to be that of weighing the good and evil deeds in a scale and deciding to which of the two sides the scale turned. Roughly speaking, if the good deeds exceed the evil, the soul is entitled to go to heaven.⁵⁵ But if the evil deeds preponderate, the soul is assigned to go to hell.⁵⁶ The side of the balance that outweighs the other even by a hair of the eyelash determines the fate of the soul accordingly.⁵⁷ If the good deeds are in weight three Sroshocharans more than the evil deeds, the soul attains to heaven;⁵⁸ if the evil deeds exceed the good ones by three Sroshocharans, the soul is doomed to hell until the time of Resurrection.⁵⁹ An infidel is saved from hell if good deeds are one Tanapuhar weight more than his evil deeds.⁶⁰	55 Mkh. 12.13 SLS. 6.2-4; Sg. 4.93, 94. 56 Mkh. 12.15; Sg. 4.95, 96; AV. 6.10. 57 Sd; 2.3, 4. 58 Phl. Vd. 7.52; SLS. 6.3; AV. 6.9. 59 Phl. Vd. 7.52. 60 SLS. 6.6.
The author of the Dadestan texts takes a more rational view and asserts that it is not simply the preponderating good or evil deeds that score off their opposite, so that the soul receives recompense or retribution on the residue, but that every single good or evil deed is taken into account separately and receives its recompense or retribution in accordance. Thus a righteous soul whose preponderating good deeds have entitled it to heaven does not escape a temporary punishment for the few misdeeds that stand on its account. Similarly the wicked soul that is doomed to hell for its evil deeds has at least a few good deeds to its credit, and consequently receives temporary enjoyment severally for these before it is sent to perdition for its wrongs.⁶¹ In other words, [414] the righteous soul may have a few misdeeds for which it has not atoned, and will therefore undergo a corresponding punishment after death before it is admitted to the company of the righteous,62 and the same is logically true of the soul of the sinner. The sins usually accounted for at the bridge are those that have not been expiated during the lifetime of the individual.⁶² Those that are already atoned for in this world are not laid to his charge hereafter, but stand cancelled in the book of life, and no account is taken of them at the bridge.⁶⁴ We find, however, in another place that such a soul does receive a temporary punishment at the bridge, but is spared the future torture of hell.⁶⁵	61 Dd. 13.4; 24.6. 62 Phl. Vd. 7. 52. 63 Dd. 24.5. 64 Dd. 13.2, 3. 65 Dd. 41.8; Sd. 45.10.
We have already seen that the Pahlavi-Persian works speak of the Treasury of the Eternal Weal where the supererogatory deeds of the faithful are stored and from which the souls found to be in need of merit at the Bridge of Judgment are compensated.⁶⁶ It is said that every Zoroastrian gets the benefit of the accumulated good deeds performed by the faithful in all the seven zones of the earth. If a soul is found deficient in merit at the reckoning the deficit is made up from this treasury.⁶⁷ This doctrine appears in the later Judaism and Christianity.⁶⁸ If a man brings forward false accusation against another or steals his property, the heavenly judges take away corresponding merit of good deeds, which the sinner may have done in this world and credit it to the account of the wronged person. But when it is found that the wrong-doer has not any accumulated merit of his own, the judges draw upon the Treasury of Eternal Weal and compensate the soul of the person who has suffered.⁶⁹	66 Dd. 38.3; see Böklen, Persische Eschatology, p. 58, 59; Pavri, The Zoroastrian Doctrine of a Future Life, p. 51, 52, 74-77, 100, 102. 67 Sd. 1.3-5. 68 See. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, p. 313. 69 Sd. 64.9; SdBd. 65.1-5; 71.4, 5.
Heaven
The graduated heavens. The division of heaven, or the celestial realms, into several mansions of Paradise, as recognized in the Avesta, remains unaltered in the Pahlavi period. Heaven in general is designated Vahisht, Paradise, but the divisions of heaven into the domains of Good Thoughts, Good Words, and [415] Good Deeds, with the highest heaven Garotman, make up the four chief heavens.⁷⁰ Endless Light and Best Existence are variants frequently used for Garotman.⁷¹ The several heavens of the celestial world are also known after the names of their locations in space, and are then called the heavens of the Star Region, the Moon Region, the Sun Region, and that of Endless Light.⁷² A distinction is generally made between the lower heavens and the highest heaven.⁷³ If one's good deeds are three Sroshocharans more than his evil deeds he goes to Vahisht, or heaven, but if they are only one Tanapuhar in weight more than his misdeeds the soul goes to the Best Existence.⁷⁴ With the same idea it is said that when ceremonies are not performed for the good of the soul, it goes to heaven, but when performed it ascends to the highest Garotman.⁷⁵	70 Hn. 2.33, 34; Mkh. 2.146; 7.12; 57. 13; AV. 7.1; 8.1; 9.1; 10.l; cf. 2 Corinthians, 12.2. 71 Dd. 1.3; 14.7; 34.3; SLS. 10.26. 72 Bd. 12.l; Dd. 34.3; Mkh. 7.9-11; Dk. vol. 7, p. 461. 73 Bd. 12.1; 30-27; Dd. 14.7; 24.6; 31.4.15, 17, 22, 25; 34.3; Sd. 80.l1. 74 SLS. 6.3. 75 Ib.
If the good deeds are in excess the righteous soul goes to heaven on the dawn of the fourth day, but if, in addition to the stock of this virtue, he has chanted the Gathas and thus has extra merit to his credit as a true believer, he then is transported aloft to Garotman.⁷⁶ Vohuman welcomes such a righteous soul, and announces at the command of Ohrmazd, its place and reward.⁷⁷ The same archangel thereupon offers the sanctified spirit a cup of ambrosia to drink,⁷⁸ and the righteous souls that are in heaven greet it with joy and pleasure.⁷⁹	76 Dd. 20.3. 77 Dd. 31.5. 78 Phl. Vd. 19.31. 79 Dd. 31.9.
Location of heavens. The concept of the next world, which was abstract and spiritual in the Gathic and Later Avestan periods, gradually becomes concrete and material. The separate heavens as well as hells retain their names which designate abstract virtues as Good or Evil Thoughts, Words, and Deeds, but they are now in reality completely materialized. Different heavens are located in different parts of the cosmos, and a sharply defined boundary line divides them from one another. The separate heavens, begin with the Star Region.⁸⁰ The first heaven, of Good Thoughts, is represented as extending from the [416] stars to the moon; the second heaven, of Good Words, commences from the moon and reaches the sun; the third, of Good Deeds, extends from the sun to the lower limits of Garotman, and the last, or the highest Garotman, the Best Existence, the abode of Ahura Mazda, is in the regions of the Endless Light.⁸¹	80 Dk.. vol. 9, p. 626. 81 Mkh. 7. 9-12; AV. 7-10.
Nature of heaven. Heaven is exalted, resplendent, most fragrant, and most desirable.⁸² It possesses all light, all goodness, all glory, all fragrance, and all joy.⁸³ It has comfort, pleasure, joy, and happiness that are higher and greater than the highest and greatest comfort, pleasure, joy, and happiness in this world. It is devoid of want, pain, distress, and discomfort,⁸⁴ and it is luminous, full of charm and full of bliss.⁸⁵ Just as anything that is unlimited, imperishable, inconsumable, and everlasting is greater than that which is limited, perishable, passing, and consumable, so is the felicity of heaven greater than that of this world.⁸⁶ The supremest happiness and pleasure in this world could not bear comparison with the eternal felicities of heaven.⁸⁷ Sweet-scented breezes like that of basil, continually blow in paradise, spreading fragrance everywhere.⁸⁸ The grandeur and beauty are such that the souls have never seen anything so exquisite in the material world. It is the residence of Ohrmazd, the archangels and angels, and of the Guardian Spirits as well as the most blessed among mankind.⁸⁹	82 Dd. 26.2. 83 Dk., vol. 3, p. 136; AV. 15.21. 84 Dd. 26.3. 85 Dk., vol. 9, p. 626. 86 Dd. 26.5; 31.23, 24. 87 Dd. 31.22. 88 Mkh. 7.15. 89 Dk., vol. 2, p. 80.
Condition of the souls in heaven. The souls in paradise move and perceive, and feel like the angels and archangels, they are undecaying, undying, unharmed, untroubled, full of glory, joy, pleasure, and happiness; and enjoy the fragrant breeze as sweet as the basil.⁹⁰ The radiance and brightness of the souls in heaven are like the stars and the moon and the sun, and they sit on the golden thrones and carpets.⁹¹ The beautiful souls are attired in clothings embroidered with gold and silver and are seated on golden carpets and richly adorned cushions. Those of [417] women are bedecked with jewelry, and those of warriors with golden arms and equipment studded with jewelry.⁹²	90 Mkh. 7.13-17; 40.30. 91 AV. 7.2, 3; 8.7; 9.3, 4. 92 Mkh. 2.154, 156; AV. 12.2, 3, 7, 9, 14, 16; 13.1, 2; 14.7-9, 14; 15.9.
Celestial food. The food that is given to the souls of the righteous ones in heaven as soon as they enter its gates is the ambrosia, the spiritual food of the angels themselves.⁹³	93 Dd. 31.12-14; Mkh. 2.152, 156; Hn. 2.38, 39.
Duration of heavenly bliss. The souls that have ascended to heaven enjoy happiness, and remain full of glory forever and ever.⁹⁴ This state of felicity continues up to the day of Resurrection.⁹⁵	94 Mkh. 2.157; 7. 7; 40.30. 95 Dd. 31.25.
HAMISTAGAN
The intermediary place between heaven and hell. It is situated between the earth and the starry regions.⁹⁶ According to the belief current in the Pahlavi period, which dates back to far more ancient times, there is provided a place for those particular souls in whose case the balance trembles evenly between good and evil at the bridge owing to the exact counterpoise between righteousness and sin in the scale into which they have cast their deeds in the present life.⁹⁷	96 Mkh. 7.18. 97 Phl. Vd. 7.52; Bd. Modi, op. cit., SLS. 6.2; Dd. 20.3; 24.6; 33.2; Mkh. 12.14; Dk., vol 9, p. 626; AV. 6.7, 11.
The condition of its inmates till the final day of the Renovation. The place of the Hamistagan resembles this earth.⁹⁸ The souls that are transported to this place have no other sufferings than cold and heat.⁹⁹ Exposed to the inclemency of weather, they shiver in winter and frost and are scorched in the tropical summer up to the day of Resurrection.¹⁰⁰ Beyond that, however, the Pahlavi texts speak of no other suffering, and their final fate is postponed till the universe is restored at the last day of the general restoration of the world.	98 Bd. Modi, op. cit., 13. 99 Mkh.7.19; AV. 6.12. 100 AV. 6.6, 11, 12.
Hell
Graduated hells. Corresponding to the four heavens or a fourfold division of heaven, the texts mention four principal [418] hells. These are the Evil Thought Hell, Evil Word Hell, Evil Deed Hell, and the Worst Existence of Darkness.¹⁰¹ Sometimes the grades of hell are vaguely spoken of without any definite number.¹⁰²	101 Mkh. 2.182, 183; 7.20, 21. 102 Bd. 11; Dd. 20.4; 33.3-5; Dk., vol. 8, p. 448.
Location of hell. The abode of the sinners is in the middle of the earth,¹⁰³ down below the Chinwad Bridge.¹⁰⁴ It is in the northern regions, as in Avestan times it was also believed to be, and below the surface of the earth, with its gate on the ridge Arezur, where the demons hold their fiendish council.¹⁰⁵	103 Bd. 3.27. 104 Bd. Modi, op. cit., 1; Dk.. vol. 9, p. 626; AV. 53.2, 3. 105 Phl. Vd. 3.7; Bd. 12.8; Dd. 33.5.
Description of hell. Hell is deep and dreadful, dark and stinking, vile and grievous, cold and stony, devoid of joy and pleasure, of comfort and happiness, and full of pain and punishment, filth and stench, misery and torture.¹⁰⁶ It is coldest beyond description in one place and hottest in another and is full of noxious creatures, stench, and darkness.¹⁰⁷ It is traversed by a gloomy and dreadful river filled by the tears shed by men for their departed ones.¹⁰⁸ The depth of hell is such that its bottom cannot be reached by a thousand cubits,¹⁰⁹ and it is tenanted by the demons, fiends, and the souls of the damned.¹¹⁰	106 Bd. 28.47; Dd. 27.2-5; 33.2: Dk., vol. 8, p. 449; vol. 9, p. 626; AV. 54. 1. 107 Mkh. 7. 27-31. 108 AV. 16.2, 7. 109 AV. 54.3. 110 Dk., vol.3, p. 135.
Ahriman greets the wicked souls in hell with scorn and mockery. No sooner is the terrible sentence pronounced upon those destined for perdition than Vizarsh and other demons pounce upon the wretched souls of the sinful and put them in heavy chains, and, beating them and mercilessly torturing them, drag them down to hell.¹¹¹ The wretched souls now repent of their sins and exclaim that it would have been better for them if they had not been born upon the earth.¹¹² The angels give them up to the charge of the demons, their own conscience deserts them, and thus forsaken and forlorn, they lament and weep, shout and shriek, gnash their teeth and tear their hair, mutilate their limbs and lacerate themselves, making moan, and soaking [419] the ground with a torrent of tears. But all in vain. Unavailing are their cries and lamentations, for the denizens of heaven seem to be under the spell of the drowsy fiend, Bushasp, who has lulled them to sleep, and the righteous souls in heaven seem to have grown callous and indifferent to the pangs of their former earthly associates. In this frightful condition there is no one to pity them, and none to cast a look of mercy on them in their disconsolate condition on the way to the infernal realm. Writhing in suffering and sorrow, weeping and lamenting and gnashing their teeth, they now enter hell,¹¹³ and with the fourth step of the downward descent to perdition they approach Ahriman who addresses them with ribald mockery, saying in scornful banter that it is strange they preferred the gloom and misery of hell to the joy and happiness of heaven,¹¹⁴ revolted from the will of Ohrmazd, whose bread they ever ate, and practised the evil of the Evil Spirit.¹¹⁵ The demons and fiends incessantly rail at the wretched souls and finally hurl them headlong into the darkest abyss.	111 Dd. 32.4-7; Mkh. 2.164. 112 Dk., vol. 5, p. 279. 113 Mkh. 2.165, 166; cf. Mathew, 8.12; 22.13; 25.30. 114 Mkh. 2.184-186; 7.23-25. 115 AV. 100.2-5.
Punishments and retributive justice. The souls are generally punished by the particular demon or demons in conformity to whose will the individual has sinned in this world.¹¹⁶ These fiends take a cruel delight in torturing the souls for the very sins that they themselves had instigated. The degree of suffering is exactly proportioned to the transgression, and the form of punishment meted out corresponds in the same manner to the various crimes committed in this world. We may select only a few instances from the elaborate list of Viraf. The one that has slain a pious man is himself killed over and over again in hell as a punishment.¹¹⁷ He who has eaten unlawfully without saying grace starves eternally of hunger and thirst.¹¹⁸ The merchant who used false scales and sold adulterated goods on earth must day and night in hell measure bushels full of filth and then devour them.¹¹⁹ A tyrant king is tortured by being flogged by demons with darting serpents.¹²⁰ A liar and a slanderer have [420] their tongues ever gnawed by noxious creatures.¹²¹ The law obtains in hell that all demons assail their victims from the front, but the demon of slander alone attacks from the rear, because a backbiter usually indulges in secret calumnies in the absence of a person.¹²² An apostate is converted into a creature with the head of a man and the body of a serpent.¹²³ The person who in life has defiled the fire or the water through some pollution by means of dead matter must in hell continually devour dead matter.¹²⁴ The man who withheld food from the dogs in this world has to offer them bread in plenty in the inferno, but they prefer to devour his flesh instead; nor do they give him a moment's respite.¹²⁵ The individual who has removed the boundary stones of others and usurped their lands has to pay the penalty of digging a hill with his fingers and of carrying a mountain of stones on his back.¹²⁶ One who has ill-treated cattle is ever trodden under their feet.¹²⁷ This method of inflicting punishment analogous to the sins is so systematically carried out that in certain cases where the greater portion of the body of a sinner is exposed to torture corresponding to the sin a single limb may be exempted from the punishment, because it served as a medium of doing some good. For instance, a man whose whole body was either cooked in the caldron or was undergoing some other torment had one of his legs stretched out unmolested, because he had either shoved a wisp of hay before a hungry animal that was tied and could not reach it or killed some noxious creatures with it.¹²⁸ He had not done any other good deed his whole life long.	116 Dd. 14.6; 32.11; Mkh. 21.11, 16, 17, 40, 43, 44. 117 AV. 21.1-5. 118 AV. 23.1-9. 119 AV. 27.1-7; 80.1-7. 120 AV. 28.1-6. 121 AV. 29.1-6; 33.1-6; 66.1-6. 122 Mkh. 2.12. 123 AV. 36.1-7. 124 AV. 38.1-7; 41.1-8. 125 AV. 48.1-7. 126 AV. 49.1-9; 50.1-6. 127 AV. 75.1-6. 128 SLS. 12.29; Sd. 4.3-11; AV. 32.1-6; 60.1-8.
All conceivable forms of physical torture prevail in hell. Viraf recounts the ghastly spectacle he had witnessed in the vision vouchsafed him of hell. The various kinds of most hideous tortures in hell are so dreadful that the torments and sufferings in this world dwindle into insignificance before them; and the worst of earthly calamities and inflictions present but a feeble and inadequate counterpart of their terror.¹²⁹ Nay the memory [421] of the miseries on earth is the only joy for the unfortunate inmates of hell in contrast to the torment they have to undergo in the inferno. Viraf relates that the souls are ever gnawed by snakes and scorpions, worms and other noxious creatures, flogged with darting serpents as whips in the hands of demons, suspended head downwards by one leg or by the breasts in the case of women or, again, trodden under the feet of cattle. Iron spikes and wooden pegs are driven into their eyes; they are made to stand on hot brass and compelled to lick a hot oven with their tongues. A brazen caldron is constantly boiling, and is continually fed by the tens of thousands of wretched souls flung into it. Miserable as their lot is as they are cooked, it is made still more miserable by the fact that the fire that burns them never consumes them. On earth such miserable wretches could have hope that a merciful death would release them by bringing an end to their sufferings; but even that one solace is denied to the damned, for though the fire burns them unceasingly, their souls are equally eternal, and cannot therefore be annihilated.	129 Dd. 27.5.
Solitude in hell is appalling. One of the miseries that the souls have to endure in hell is its solitude.¹³⁰ The souls stand as close to one another as the ear is to the eye, but each one feels itself alone and solitary; and though the souls be as many in number as hairs in the mane of a horse, each one feels that it is lost in solitude, with no eyes to see its sufferings and no ears to hear its groanings.¹³¹ A thousand souls are huddled together in the short space of a span, and yet every one is ignorant of the presence of others besides itself, and considers itself thrown out in the wilderness.¹³²	130 Dk.. vol. 7, p. 495. 131 AV. 54.5, 8. 132 Bd. 28.47
Intensity of the darkness and stench of hell. The infernal region is the abode of all darkness.¹³³ The Avestan texts spoke of hell as the abode of darkness; in the Pahlavi texts the concept is intensified, and the darkness is conceived of as being so dense that it can be grasped by hand,¹³⁴ and the stench such that it can be cut with a knife.¹³⁵ All the wood in the world put on the fire would not emit a smell in this most stinking place.¹³⁶	133 Dd. 33.4. 134 Phl. Vd. 5.62; 7.22; Mkh. 7.31; cf. Exodus 10.21. 135 Bd. 28.47 136 AV. 54.4.
[422] The foulest food served to the sinners. The most fetid, putrid, and disgusting kinds of food are given to the sinners in hell,¹³⁷ and these the wretched creatures devour in quantities, but yet remain eternally hungry and thirsty.¹³⁸ Brimstone and lizard,¹³⁹ poison and the venom of snakes, scorpions, and other noxious creatures,¹⁴⁰ blood and filth, bodily refuse and excrement, impurity and menstrual discharge, dust and human flesh, dirt and ashes, form the variety of dishes that the infernal caterer supplies to the inmates of hell.¹⁴¹	137 Mkh. 2.190. 138 Dd. 32.8, 9. 139 Bd. 28.48. 140 Mkh. 2.191, 192. 141 AV. 20.1, 2; 23.1-3; 27.1, 2; 35.1, 2; 38.1, 2; 39.1, 2; 46.1, 2; 51.1, 2; 59.1, 2; 83.1; 91.1; 98.1.
Duration of punishment in hell. Mashya and Mashyoi, the first human couple, broke the divine commandment and lied unto Ahura Mazda; they were sent to hell, and will remain there until the Renovation.¹⁴² When a convert from Zoroastrianism to some other faith dies, his soul is sentenced to the sufferings of hell until the day of Resurrection.¹⁴³ Punishment of long duration,¹⁴⁴ or forever and eternal suffering are the expressions most frequently met with in connection with the duration of the souls in hell.¹⁴⁵ This, however, refers only to the end of the cycle, the period of Renovation, when the world will be regenerated and all the sinners saved by the compassionate Lord. Ahura Mazda will not allow even the worst of the sinners to fall permanently into the hands of the Evil Spirit.¹⁴⁶	142 Bd. 15.9. 143 Dd. 41.6. 144 Mkh. 2.186. 145 Dd.13.4; Dk., vol. 2, p. 83; vol. 3, p. 141; vol. 4, p. 264, 270; vol. 6, p. 355, 407; vol. 7, p. 432, 495; Mkh. 2.193; 40.31; AV. 64.13; 87.9. 146 SLS. 8.23; Dd. 75.4; Sg. 4.100, 101; 12.59; Dk., vol. 9, p. 627.
The souls find the time so slowly moving and tedious that when they have passed only three days and nights in the torments of hell, or sometimes even a single day, they feel as if nine thousand years had elapsed and as if it were already time for the day of Resurrection to come and bring them release from the prison of the inferno.¹⁴⁷	147 AV. 18.11; 54.10, 11.
[423] CHAPTER XLV THE RENOVATION
Those who further the work of the final restoration. The work of regenerating the world, which was commenced by Gayomard, the first man, and was looked forward to from the time of the Gathas, will be brought to completion and perfection by Soshyos, the last saviour.¹ With Gayomard the curtain rose on the human drama. It will fall with the advent of Soshyos. Gayomard, Jamshid, Zaratusht, and all pious men who have worked for the betterment of the universe are among those that help in bringing about the final renovation.² The great work proceeds with greater or lesser success according as mankind are stronger or weaker in the practice of righteousness at various periods. In two of his visions the prophet sees a tree with four and seven branches respectively. The branches are made of different metals and represent the various periods of the religious history of Zoroastrianism. The first and the golden branch represents the golden age of the faith under King Gushtasp, the silver and steel boughs symbolize a decadence, while the last, depicted by the iron branch, or age of the great catastrophe, is the period of the final overthrow of the empire, the overwhelming cataclysm that threatened to submerge the world except for the triumph of virtue and right.³ When the mighty work of reclaiming mankind from evil is accomplished, there will follow the Renovation of the universe.⁴ Those who work to bring this period nearer are said to be holding communion with Ohrmazd.⁵	1 Dk., vol. l, p. 29. 2 Dd. 36.2. 3 BYt. 1.2-5; 2.14-22. 4 Dk., vol. 5, p. 332. 5 Dk., vol. 7, p. 426.
Saviours born immaculately. Ohrmazd sends his special messengers at various periods of chaos and confusion to save humanity from the clutches of Ahriman.⁶ This is clear in the Gathas as in the Younger Avesta. These Messianic heralds of the real truth to be embodied in the final Soshyos exemplify righteousness complete and translate the abstract teachings of [424] religion into concrete actions that thus make the seemingly incomprehensible intelligible and tangible to the masses. The most prominent among these leaders in the last three millenniums, as noted before, are the three sons that are to be born miraculously to Zaratusht, from his seed through a supernatural conception by a maid, bathing in the waters of Lake Kans (an idea as old as Yt. 19), and the names of these three ideal promoters of mankind, as perpetuated in the forms current during the Pahlavi period, are Hoshedar, Hoshedar-mah, and Soshyos, who will appear at an interval of a millennium each.⁷ It is said that Zaratusht went three times near unto his wife Hvov, and that each time the seed went to the ground. On each of these three occasions, important for mankind, the spiritual seeds were caught up by the angel Neryosangh and intrusted to the keeping of Ardvisur, the divinity of waters, and from these sanctified waters they will be born in time to come, as miraculously conceived at different periods by three virgins.⁸ The advent of the all-beneficent renovators of the faith for the regeneration of the world will, as we shall see below, be attended with portents and miraculous signs.	6 Dk., vol. 1, p. 29. 7 Mkh. 2.95. 8 Bd. 32.8.
The millennium of Hoshedar. A child is born to a virgin named Shemik-abu of the age of fifteen, who miraculously conceives Zaratusht's seed when she drinks the waters from a pool. The seed was emitted during the lifetime of Zaratusht and lay concealed in the waters until the maiden kindled the germs and became pregnant.⁹ The child thus immaculately born in the first of the three final millenniums of the world is named Hoshedar, a later modified corrupt transcript of the Avestan Ukhshyat-ereta. In the first of the last three thousand years of the world, before the final renovation and the resurrection, he holds, at the age of thirty, a conference with Ohrmazd and receives a revelation.¹⁰ When he returns from this divine conference, Hoshedar makes the sun stand still for ten days and nights to convince the people, of the world about the authenticity of his mission.¹¹ During his millennium, righteousness, liberality, and all the virtues [425] supreme will be practised by mankind more and more as the world slowly moves towards perfection during this aeon. Two-thirds of the people of Iran, according to the Pahlavi texts, will turn out righteous.¹² The wisdom of the religion will constantly increase,¹³ the poverty of the people and the slaughter of cattle will decrease,¹⁴ as he is the benefactor that will help to remove the wickedness of the wolfish nature in mankind.¹⁵	9 Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.8. 55-57, p. 105, 106. 10 BYt. 3.45; Dk., vol. 8, p. 485. 11 BYt. 3. 45, 46; Dk., vol. 4, p. 247; SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.9.2, p. 107, 108. 12 Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.9.13, p. 110. 13 Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.9.2, p. 107, 108. 14 Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.9. -11, p. 108-110. 15 Dk., vol. 1, p. 49; vol. 2, p. 128; vol. 3, p. 133; vol. 6, p. 378.
The millennium of Hoshedar-mah. A maiden named Shapir-abu is destined to approach the waters and conceive thereby, again through the second seed of Zaratusht. The virgin who has never approached man gives birth to a child who is named Hoshedar-mah, an imperfect rendering of the Avestan Ukhshyat-nemangh,^15a who confers with Ohrmazd.¹⁶ At the age of thirty years he announces his advent by making the sun to stand still for twenty days and twenty nights.¹⁷ His benign presence and Messianic power, it is destined, will destroy the wicked product of every serpentine and monster engendure.¹⁸ Mankind greatly advances toward the realization of the final goal of perfection during this millennium. Cattle give milk in great quantities. In connection with this millennial view, it may be added, from the Pahlavi texts of this later period, that the small cattle which give milk will give milk then in redoubled quantity, and a cow will give as much milk as could be used by a thousand men. Hunger and thirst decrease, as the world reaches nearer to its perfection. A single meal will be sufficient to satisfy a man for three days.¹⁹ Mankind will furthermore become so versed in the art of healing, and in the science of physical culture, that they will be able to withstand disease and death more successfully.²⁰ Humility, peace, and liberality will be now and forever more zealously practised by men.²¹	15a Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.9.18-20, p. 111. 16 Dk., vol. 8, p. 486. 17 Dk., vol. 4, p. 247; SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.9.21, p. 111; 10.2, p. 112, 113. 18 Dk., vol. l, p. 49; vol. 2, p. 128; vol. 3, p. 133; vol. 6, p. 378, 379. 19 Bd. 30.2; Dk.,SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.10.2, p. 112, 113. 20 BYt. 3.53. 21 Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.10.3, p. 113.
The millennium of Soshyos. The world, according to the Pahlavi texts, which carry onward the ideal teachings of Zaratusht [426] in the Gathas as developed further in the Younger Avesta, is ever striving and tending toward final betterment, and will reach perfection in the millennium of Soshyos. It needs only the final touch of this greatest of the renovators to bring about this result for the eternal welfare of the universe. Men by this time, when these millennial conditions have been reached, have ceased eating meat, and subsist on milk and vegetables.²² Even milk, according to the Pahlavi works, is gradually given up, and water and vegetables form the only food of mankind.²³ The Bundahishn, moreover, adds that, before the Resurrection and the Renovation of the universe occur, men will give up milk, vegetables, and even water, and they will ultimately subsist without food of any kind, and yet not die.²⁴ Still another Pahlavi text states that during the period of the fifty-seven years of the activity of this last apostle mankind will be able to subsist for seventeen years simply on vegetables, then thirty on water alone, and for the last ten years on spiritual food.²⁵	22 Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.10.8, p. 114. 23 Bd. 30.l; Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.10.9, p. 114. 24 Bd. 30.3. 25 Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.11.4, p. 117.
At this time, according to the texts, when the world is ripe to welcome the last of the prophets, a virgin named Gobak-abu conceives immaculately the third seed of Zaratusht in the same manner as her two forerunners had done. At the age of fifteen she becomes pregnant and gives birth to the most illustrious Soshyos in the realm of Khvaniras.²⁶ When the final saviour is thirty years of age, the sun stands still in the zenith of the sky for thirty days and nights;²⁷ through his supernal power the demoniac nature among men will be broken.²⁸ He will then cause the Resurrection and the future existence.²⁹ His body, which is as radiant as the sun, partakes only of spiritual food and he is clad with kingly glory. Around him he looks with the power of six eyes and he it is that foresees the end of the Evil Spirit.³⁰ He is the greatest renovator of the world.³¹ He comes to restore the dead to life,³² and to bring final perfection to the world.³³	26 Bd. 11.6; Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.10. 15-18, p. 115. 27 Dk., vol. 4, p. 247; SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.10.19, p. 116. 28 Dk., vol. 6, p. 379. 29 Bd.11.6; Gs.133. 30 Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.11.2, 3, p. 116, 117. 31 Dk., vol. 7, p. 485. 32 Gs. 133. 33 Dk., vol. l, p. 29.
[427] Any kind of wickedness that may still be lingering, in spite of his supreme beneficence, will perish through his presence.³⁴ The angels will enable mankind to co-operate with the great apostle Soshyos to rout Druj.³⁵ In advance of his divine mission to the world he has met Ohrmazd in conference and has received the supreme sanction for his task.³⁶ During the fifty-seven years of his work, he will drive out the drujes from the world,³⁷ and will make the world eternally happy.³⁸	34 Dk., vol. l, p. 49; vol. 2, p 128. 35 Dk., vol. 2, p. 111, 112. 36 Dk., vol. 8, p. 486. 37 Ib. 38 Dk., vol. 9, p. 617.
The collaborators of Soshyos. Ohrmazd has ordained that Soshyos will be helped by certain great persons who have departed from the world, but who remain immortal and are still living in the body, and are yet to exert sway. The chief among these personages, potent for the eternal welfare of mankind, are, Peshyotan, Aghrerat, Parsadga, Urvatadnar, Narsih, Tus, Giv, Ibairaz, Ashavazd,³⁹ with a thousand others.⁴⁰ Kaikhusru will arise to help Soshyos in the raising of the dead;⁴¹ Peshyotan, or Chitra-mahan, will lend help with his hundred and fifty disciples.⁴² Still another Pahlavi passage speaks of fifteen men and fifteen women among the living that are to come to the help of Soshyos.⁴³ They will all leaven the rest of mankind. Zohak, who is put in chains on Mount Demavand, shall even at the last, break loose from the bonds in which he has been confined,⁴⁴ and as a monster-man will return to the world and disturb the righteous creation.⁴⁵ At the command of Ohrmazd, his ministers Srosh and Neryosangh approach the body of Kersasp and raise it from the dead. The hero then rises up and slays Zohak.⁴⁶ Soshyos and six of his companions, Roshn-chashm, Khur-chashm, Fradat-gadman, Varedat-gadman, Kamak-Vakhshishn, and Kamak-sud, all of which names have a spiritual significance, [428] will divide the work between them, and each of them will act in one of the seven zones.⁴⁷ Every one will miraculously communicate with the other of his six colleagues in the other zones. They will read each other's thoughts from a distance and will thus converse just as two men sitting close together would do.⁴⁸ The work of the renovation of the world will last for fifty-seven years, the number already referred to.⁴⁹ Full fifty years of this beneficent activity will be devoted to the seventh zone Khvaniras, where Zaratusht himself was the spiritual chief,⁵⁰ and where Soshyos himself is working.⁵¹ All evil will perish during these fifty-seven years, and goodness prevail among mankind, and men will embrace righteousness and zealously practise religion before the final raising of the dead.⁵² Disease and death, apostasy and vice, depravity and every fiendish influence, will perish during this period.⁵³ The world will be restored to its primal state.	39 Bd. 29.5, 6; Dd. 36.3. 40 Jsp. p. 119. 41 Dd. 36.3; Mkh. 27.59, 63; 57.7; Dk., vol. 7, p. 485; SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.10.10, p. 114. 42 Dk., vol. 5, p. 275; SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.8.45, 46, p. 104; BYt. 3.27, 29. 43 Bd. 30.17. 44 BYt. 3.55, 56; cf. Revelation, 20.2, 7-10. 45 BYt. 3.57. 46 Bd. 29. 7-9; Dd. 36.3; 37.97; BYt. 3.59-61; Dk., SBE., vol. 47, bk. 7.10.10, p. 114; vol. 37, bk. 9.15.2, p. 198, 199; Jsp. p. 118, 119. 47 Dd. 36. , 5. 48 Dd.36.6. 49 Bd. 30.7; d. 36.5. 50 Bd. 29.2. 51 Dd. 36.7. 52 Dk., vol. 5, p. 277. 53 Dk., SBE.,vol. 47, bk. 7, 11.4, 5, p. 117.
Resurrection of the dead. The preliminary work of the renovators is to raise again to life all those who have died from the time of Gayomard, the primeval man, down to the last man Soshyos, and then give them their respective bodies.⁵⁴ It is natural that the world could not at this period be quite empty of men. Those who happen to be living at the time when the period of renovation approaches near shall abstain from eating, live without food, and live so virtuously that even the offspring that are born unto them at this period will be of spiritual nature. All these, therefore, will be ready to enter the ranks of the dead who will now receive new bodies.⁵⁵	54 Dk., vol 5. p. 332. 55 Dd. 35.1-4.
The dead will be made to rise from the place where they had yielded up their lives in the world.⁵⁶ Zaratusht questions Ohrmazd in this connection, according to the Pahlavi texts, regarding the questions of forming again the bodies of the dead, inasmuch as the material frames of the dead have perished and been reduced to dust.⁵⁷ Ohrmazd, thereupon, tells the prophet that even as it was possible for him to have created something from nothing, [429] when nothing at all existed, and as he was able to create the sky and the earth, the sun and the moon, and the stars, fire and water, clouds and wind, grain and mankind, in fact everything that formerly had no existence, it would not be difficult for him at the Resurrection to form anew something that had already existed.⁵⁸ Mohammed likewise tells those that doubt, that if God could create them out of nothing, it was certainly possible for him to bring them back to life after death. The spirit of the earth, the water, the plants, and the fire will at that time restore the bones, blood, hair, life, and other materials which had been committed to them by God in the beginning, and in this manner the bodies will be formed anew.⁵⁹ And in another Pahlavi work it is said that just as it is easier to teach what once was learnt but was forgotten than it is to teach that which had never been learnt, and as it is easier to repair a house than to build a new one, even so is it easier to bring to pass the restoration of the creation than in the beginning the original creation out of nothing.⁶⁰	56 Bd. 30.7; SLS. 17.11-14. 57 Bd. 30.4. 58 Bd. 30.5. 59 Bd. 30.6. 60 Dd.37.5.
All those resurrected will be furnished with their bodily frames by the command of Ohrmazd.⁶¹ The first body thus raised up will be that of Gayomard, the father of mankind. Then will follow the first couple, Mashya and Mashyoi, and then the rest of mankind, whether righteous or wicked.⁶² Exceptions to this general statement are found in other Pahlavi texts, but the tone is in general the same. Men of demoniac nature, sodomites, apostates, and the hateful Afrasiab will not be given their bodies, for these arch-enemies of religion are no longer men, but have converted themselves into fiends and must consequently share the fate of their class.⁶³	61 Dk., vol. 6, p. 359. 62 Bd. 30.7. 63 SLS. 17.7; Dk., vol 3. p. 144.
Universal judgment. A further arraignment at the judgment seat now takes place. The righteous and the wicked souls are now gathered together in one place and are subjected to the collective, or universal judgment. Every soul at this judicial session sees its good and its evil deeds, and the wicked man becomes as conspicuous as a white sheep among the black.⁶⁴ Ohrmazd [430] himself takes a final and decisive account of the souls, and pronounces definitely upon them, for he remembers in each detail the several individual judgments passed in connection with every one of the myriads of the wicked souls after their death, as well as the just.⁶⁵ From his judgment there is no appeal. The souls called together in this great and last judicial assembly recognize each other after the long separation.⁶⁶ The father sees his son, and the brother meets his sister, the husband greets his wife, the relative welcomes his kinsman, and the friend inquires after the experience of his friend. Everyone eagerly narrates his or her account of the joys or sorrows during the long period of separation from their comrades of the material world.⁶⁷ The wicked ones taunt their righteous friends or relatives with the bitter reproach that it had not been good on their part to have practised righteousness themselves, and yet to have left them unwarned in the indulgence of vice.⁶⁸ The righteous weep for the wicked, and the wicked weep for themselves in the midst of this universal mourning while the righteous are being separated from the wicked and sent back to heaven.⁶⁹ So far they had enjoyed bliss and felicity in their spiritual condition, they now enter heaven in body, and have the satisfaction of seeing even the bodily grievances of their earthly life adjusted.	64 Bd. 30.10; cf. Jackson, Persia Past and Present, p. 75, New York, 1906. 65 Dd. 14.5. 66 Bd. 30.9. 67 Bd. 30.21, 68 Bd. 30.11. 69 Bd. 30.12, 14, 15.
Bodily punishment. The wicked are now cast back to hell, where they suffer bodily punishment for three days.⁷⁰ Hitherto their life in hell was torment of the spirit, now in the very body that on earth was instrumental in bringing the spiritual fall of the soul suffers materially. It is said that the wicked soul suffers three kinds of punishment at three different periods. Firstly, in this world during the earthly life; secondly, in hell from the night after the individual's death up to the period of the Renovation in spiritual form; and thirdly, now for three days in hell in the bodily form.⁷¹	70 Bd. 30.13. 71 Phl. Vd. 7.52.
Ordeal of molten metal. The final punishment of being tortured in hell and burnt in a river of molten metal for three nights, after Ohrmazd's judgment is given, is in store for the wicked souls. A comet, named Gochihar will fall from heaven and melt all metals and minerals in the earth, and will burn [431] up the world in a general conflagration. A boiling flood of the metals of Shatravar will then flow over the earth,⁷² and the righteous as well as the wicked souls will be made to pass into it.⁷³ In this glowing flood the wicked souls will be purged of their sins, so that they become wholly purified,⁷⁴ while the righteous will feel as if they were walking in warm milk.⁷⁵ The torture of the worst' sinners, such as Zohak, Afrasiab, and the rest, during these three nights is more intense than that of all others.⁷⁶ This final conflagration brings freedom of the sinners from the prison of hell.⁷⁷	72 Bd. 30.18, 19; cf. Revelation, 8.10; 9.1. 73 Jsp. p. 119, 120. 74 Bd. 30.20; Dd. 32.12, 13; 37.110, 111; Mkh. 21.10. 75 Bd. 30.20. 76 Bd. 30.16. 77 Dk., vol. 2, p. 104; vol. 8. p. 476.
The righteous and the wicked shall no longer remain as divided, but unite into one. Then, following the great conflagration, there will be the final renovation of the world. The sinners who have been thus purified and purged of their sins by the fiery metal become worthy of eternal bliss;⁷⁸ and that final punishment will absolve them of their sins.⁷⁹ The entire creation of Ohrmazd now becomes virtuous.⁸⁰ The wicked no longer remain wicked,⁸¹ but become righteous.⁸² The angels under whose influence they had done good deeds in the world approach them and give joy to them in the proportion of these good deeds.⁸³ The happiness of the souls that were already righteous is far greater than that of the wicked who had been cleansed through torture and punishment.⁸⁴ The erring children are now restored to the bosom of the Heavenly Father, and Ohrmazd now takes back the entire creation to himself.⁸⁵	78 Dd. 14.8; Dk., vol. 5, p. 332; vol. 9, p. 627. 79 Dk., vol. 6, p. 421. 80 Dk., vol. 7, p. 458, 469. 81 Phl. Vd. 7.52. 82 Dd. 32.14. 83 Dd. 32.15. 84 Ib., 16. 85 Dk., vol. 12, bk. 6.279, p. 7.
The removal of the imperfection of the material bodies of men. The completion of heavenly bliss requires that it be everlasting. The human soul is immortal, but the body is not so. Therefore Soshyos and his companions prepare through an Izishna ceremony a nectar from the fat of the ox Hadhayosh [432] and the white Hom juice, through a draught of which all beings become immortal forever and everlasting.⁸⁶ Every one is given an immortal body and becomes as innocent in nature as cattle.⁸⁷ The entire good creation is henceforth immortal.⁸⁸ Any one who was a full grown man when he had died is given the appearance of a man of forty years of age; and those who died at an early age are given the stature of a youth of fifteen years.⁸⁹ Husbands and wives united with their children live together, even as they lived and acted in this world, but there is no begetting of children.⁹⁰ Their existence in paradise is accompanied by the full enjoyment of their reward for ever and ever.⁹¹ Those that had not given clothes as a righteous gift in the world and were now consequently without clothes themselves are provided with garments by the angels.⁹² They are hungerless and thirstless, undecaying and undying, undistressed and ever-beneficial.⁹³ Neither a blow, nor a knife, nor a sword, nor a club, nor a stone, nor an arrow hurts the body, for it is now perfected and is immune from pain of any sort.⁹⁴ Bodily ailments have vanished.⁹⁵ The portals of eternal bliss are now flung open to the whole humanity.⁹⁶	86 Bd. 19. 13; 30.25; Dd. 37.119. 87 Dk., vol. 1, p. 50; vol. 6, p. 421. 88 Dk., vol. 4, p. 204; vol. 7, p. 472. 89 Jsp. p. 120. 90 Bd. 30.26. 91 Bd. 30.27. 92 Bd. 30.28; cf. 2 Corinthians 5.2-4; Revelation 3.4, 5; 6.11; 7.9; 19.8. 93 Dd. 37.119. 94 Dd. 37.122-125. 95 Dk., vol. 4, p. 234. 96 Dk., vol. 5, p. 332.
The last decisive battle between the forces of good and evil. Then will follow the last and decisive battle of the eternal war between the rival armies of Ohrmazd and Ahriman. Every one of the good spirits will combat with his adversary, and in every case the success will be on the side of the good. Ohrmazd assails Ahriman, Vohuman seizes on Akoman, Artavahisht on Indar, Shatravar on Sovar, Spandarmad on Taromat or Naonghas. Khurdad and Amardad on Tairev and Zairich, Truth on Falsehood and Srosh on Eshm.⁹⁷ Druj will perish.⁹⁸ Hell itself is burnt out. Ohrmazd comes down to the world and acts as the [433] Zota, sacrificial priest, together with Srosh as his Raspi, and holds the sacred thread-girdle in his hands. The holy formulas confound the Evil Spirit, who, now impotent, rushes back to darkness by the same passage through which he had come out at the beginning of creation.⁹⁹	97 Bd. 30.29. 98 Dk., vol. 6, p. 421. 99 Bd. 30.30.
Demon and fiend, deceit and falsehood, strife and anger, hatred and ill-temper, pain and disease, want and greediness, shame and fear, all perish.^100-101 Evil of every kind disappears, and good of every kind is perfected.¹⁰² Ohrmazd at last becomes completely predominant,¹⁰³ and his Kingdom of Righteousness is built upon the earth.	100-101 Dd. 37.120, 121. 102 Dd. 37.122. 103 Dd. 7.3.
Humanity attunes its will to the will of Ohrmazd. All men now become of one will¹⁰⁴ and remain of one accord in the faith of Ohrmazd,¹⁰⁵ giving voice in song to the Glory of their Lord.¹⁰⁶ On no account will their will be in conflict with the divine will, but will ever coincide with it.¹⁰⁷ They now live in the blessed company of Ohrmazd,¹⁰⁸ and work to exalt his glory.	104 Dd. 37.127. 105 Dk.. SBE.,vol. 47, bk. 7. 11.6, p. 117. 106 Bd. 30.23. 107 Dk., vol. 5, p. 332. 108 Dk., vol. 8, p. 436.
[434 is blank] [435] A PERIOD OF DECADENCE FROM THE SEVENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY [436 is blank] [437] CHAPTER XLVI DOWNFALL OF THE SASANIANS, AND THE AFTERMATH
Iran sinks before the hordes of Arabs. The death of Khusru Parviz, who had waged the last war in the standing rivalry with the West, heralded the collapse of the Persian empire. The death-knell of the national greatness had been struck whe

M.N. Dhalla: History of Zoroastrianism (1938), part 6.

CHAPTER XLIII

EVIL

AHRIMAN

DIVS

AKOMAN

DRUJ

INDAR

SOVAR

TAROMAT

NAONGHAS

TAIREV

ZAIRICH

ASTOVIDAD

VIZARSH

ESHM

Aposh

Jeh

Other Demons

CHAPTER XLIV

LIFE AFTER DEATH

Heaven

HAMISTAGAN

Hell

CHAPTER XLV

THE RENOVATION

A PERIOD OF DECADENCE FROM THE SEVENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

CHAPTER XLVI

DOWNFALL OF THE SASANIANS, AND THE AFTERMATH

A PERIOD OF DECADENCE

FROM THE SEVENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY